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Milky Way
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Milky way </w/index.php?title=Milky_way&redirect=no>)
Jump to: navigation <#mw-head>, search <#p-search>
This article is about the galaxy. For other uses, see Milky Way
(disambiguation) </wiki/Milky_Way_(disambiguation)>.
Milky Way Galaxy Milky Way IR Spitzer.jpg
</wiki/File:Milky_Way_IR_Spitzer.jpg>
Infrared image of the core of the Milky Way Galaxy
Observation data
Type </wiki/Galaxy_morphological_classification> SBbc (barred spiral
galaxy </wiki/Barred_spiral_galaxy>)
Diameter 100,000 light years^[1] <#cite_note-ask-astro-0>
Thickness 1,000 light years^[1] <#cite_note-ask-astro-0>
Number of stars 100–400 billion (1–4×10^11 ) ^[2] <#cite_note-1> ^[3]
<#cite_note-2> ^[4] <#cite_note-3>
Oldest known star 13.2 billion years^[5] <#cite_note-frebel-4>
Mass 5.8 × 10^11 M_☉ </wiki/Solar_mass>
Sun's distance to galactic center </wiki/Galactic_Center> 25,000 light
years^[6] <#cite_note-nasa_worldbook_sun-5>
Sun's galactic rotation period </wiki/Sun> 250 million years (negative
rotation)^[6] <#cite_note-nasa_worldbook_sun-5>
Spiral pattern rotation period </wiki/Density_wave_theory> 50 million
years^[7] <#cite_note-gasdynamics-6>
Bar pattern rotation period </wiki/Barred_spiral_galaxy> 15 to 18
million years^[7] <#cite_note-gasdynamics-6>
Speed relative to CMB rest frame </wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background>
552 km/s^[8] <#cite_note-dipole-7>
See also: Galaxy </wiki/Galaxy>, List of galaxies </wiki/List_of_galaxies>
v </wiki/Template:Infobox_Galaxy> • d
</wiki/Template_talk:Infobox_Galaxy> • e
<http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Infobox_Galaxy&action=edit>
The *Milky Way Galaxy*, commonly referred to as just the *Milky Way*, or
sometimes simply as the *Galaxy*, is the galaxy </wiki/Galaxy> in which
the Solar System </wiki/Solar_System> is located. The Milky Way is a
barred spiral galaxy </wiki/Barred_spiral_galaxy> that is part of the
Local Group </wiki/Local_Group> of galaxies. It is one of billions of
galaxies in the observable universe </wiki/Observable_universe>. Its
name is a translation of the Latin </wiki/Latin> /Via Lactea/, in turn
translated from the Greek </wiki/Greek_language> Γαλαξίας (/Galaxias/),
referring to the pale band of light formed by stars in the galactic
plane as seen from Earth (see etymology of /galaxy/
</wiki/Galaxy#Etymology>).
Some sources hold that, strictly speaking, the term /Milky Way/ should
refer exclusively to the band of light that the galaxy forms in the
night sky </wiki/Night_sky>, while the galaxy should receive the full
name *Milky Way Galaxy*, or alternatively /the Galaxy/.^[9]
<#cite_note-8> ^[10] <#cite_note-9> ^[11] <#cite_note-10> However, it is
unclear how widespread this convention is, and the term /Milky Way/ is
routinely used in either context.
Contents
[hide <#>]
* 1 Appearance from Earth <#Appearance_from_Earth>
o 1.1 Panoramas <#Panoramas>
* 2 Physical size <#Physical_size>
* 3 Age <#Age>
* 4 Composition and structure <#Composition_and_structure>
o 4.1 Galactic Center <#Galactic_Center>
o 4.2 Spiral arms <#Spiral_arms>
o 4.3 Halo <#Halo>
o 4.4 Sun's location and neighborhood
<#Sun.27s_location_and_neighborhood>
* 5 Environment <#Environment>
* 6 Velocity <#Velocity>
* 7 History <#History>
o 7.1 Etymology and beliefs <#Etymology_and_beliefs>
o 7.2 Discovery <#Discovery>
* 8 See also <#See_also>
* 9 References <#References>
* 10 Further reading <#Further_reading>
* 11 External links <#External_links>
[edit </w/index.php?title=Milky_Way&action=edit§ion=1>]
Appearance from Earth
All the stars </wiki/Stars> that the eye can distinguish in the night
sky are part of the Milky Way Galaxy, but aside from these relatively
nearby stars, the galaxy appears as a hazy band of white light arching
around the entire celestial sphere </wiki/Celestial_sphere>. The light
originates from stars and other material that lie within the galactic
plane. Dark regions within the band, such as the Great Rift
</wiki/Great_Rift_(astronomy)> and the Coalsack </wiki/Coalsack_Nebula>,
correspond to areas where light from distant stars is blocked by dark
nebulae. The Milky Way has a relatively low surface brightness
</wiki/Surface_brightness> due to the interstellar medium
</wiki/Interstellar_medium> that fills the galactic disk, which prevents
us from seeing the bright galactic center. It is thus difficult to see
from any urban </wiki/Urban_area> or suburban </wiki/Suburban> location
suffering from light pollution </wiki/Light_pollution>.
The center </wiki/Galactic_center> of the galaxy lies in the direction
of Sagittarius </wiki/Sagittarius_(constellation)>, and it is here that
Milky Way looks brightest. From Sagittarius, the Milky Way appears to
pass westward through the constellations of Scorpius </wiki/Scorpius>,
Ara </wiki/Ara_(constellation)>, Norma </wiki/Norma_(constellation)>,
Triangulum Australe </wiki/Triangulum_Australe>, Circinus
</wiki/Circinus>, Centaurus </wiki/Centaurus>, Musca </wiki/Musca>, Crux
</wiki/Crux>, Carina </wiki/Carina_(constellation)>, Vela
</wiki/Vela_(constellation)>, Puppis </wiki/Puppis>, Canis Major
</wiki/Canis_Major>, Monoceros </wiki/Monoceros>, Orion
</wiki/Orion_(constellation)> and Gemini </wiki/Gemini_(constellation)>,
Taurus </wiki/Taurus_(constellation)>, Auriga
</wiki/Auriga_(constellation)>, Perseus </wiki/Perseus_(constellation)>,
Andromeda </wiki/Andromeda_(constellation)>, Cassiopeia
</wiki/Cassiopeia_(constellation)>, Cepheus
</wiki/Cepheus_(constellation)> and Lacerta </wiki/Lacerta>, Cygnus
</wiki/Cygnus_(constellation)>, Vulpecula </wiki/Vulpecula>, Sagitta
</wiki/Sagitta>, Aquila </wiki/Aquila_(constellation)>, Ophiuchus
</wiki/Ophiuchus>, Scutum </wiki/Scutum>, and back to Sagittarius
</wiki/Sagittarius_(constellation)>. The fact that the Milky Way divides
the night sky into two roughly equal hemispheres
</wiki/Celestial_sphere> indicates that the Solar System lies close to
the galactic plane </wiki/Galactic_plane>.
The galactic plane is inclined by about 60 degrees to the ecliptic
</wiki/Ecliptic> (the plane of the Earth's orbit). Relative to the
celestial equator </wiki/Celestial_equator>, it passes as far north as
the constellation of Cassiopeia </wiki/Cassiopeia_(constellation)> and
as far south as the constellation of Crux </wiki/Crux>, indicating the
high inclination of Earth's equatorial plane </wiki/Equator> and the
plane of the ecliptic </wiki/Ecliptic> relative to the galactic plane.
The north galactic pole is situated at right ascension
</wiki/Right_ascension> 12h 49m, declination </wiki/Declination> +27.4°
(B1950 </wiki/B1950>) near beta Comae Berenices
</wiki/Beta_Comae_Berenices>, and the south galactic pole is near alpha
Sculptoris </wiki/Alpha_Sculptoris>.
[edit </w/index.php?title=Milky_Way&action=edit§ion=2>] Panoramas
</wiki/File:Milkyway_pan1.jpg>
360-degree photographic panorama of the galaxy.
</wiki/File:Deathvalleysky_nps_big.jpg>
A panorama of the Milky Way, as seen from Death Valley
</wiki/Death_Valley>, 2005.
</wiki/File:ESO_-_Milky_Way.jpg>
The plane of our Milky Way Galaxy, which we see edge-on from our
perspective on Earth, cuts a luminous swath across the image. Credit:
ESO </wiki/ESO>/S. Brunier
</wiki/File:360-degree_Panorama_of_the_Southern_Sky_edit.jpg>
The Milky Way arches across this 360-degree panorama of the night sky
above the Paranal platform </wiki/Paranal_Observatory>, home of ESO
</wiki/ESO>’s Very Large Telescope </wiki/Very_Large_Telescope>. The
image was made from 37 individual frames with a total exposure time of
about 30 minutes, taken in the early morning hours. The Moon
</wiki/Moon> is just rising and the zodiacal light
</wiki/Zodiacal_light> shines above it, while the Milky Way stretches
across the sky opposite the observatory. Credit: ESO </wiki/ESO>/H. Heyer
[edit </w/index.php?title=Milky_Way&action=edit§ion=3>] Physical
size
</wiki/File:ESO-ATLASGAL-phot-24a-09-fullres_001.jpg>
</wiki/File:ESO-ATLASGAL-phot-24a-09-fullres_001.jpg>
The Galactic Plane seen by the ATLASGAL survey, divided into sections.
Credit ESO </wiki/ESO>.
The stellar disk of the Milky Way Galaxy is approximately 100,000
light-years </wiki/Light-year> (9×10^17 km </wiki/Kilometre>) (6×10^17
mi) in diameter, and is considered to be, on average, about 1,000 ly
(9×10^15 km) thick.^[1] <#cite_note-ask-astro-0> It is estimated to
contain at least 200 billion stars^[12] <#cite_note-11> and possibly up
to 400 billion stars,^[13] <#cite_note-12> the exact figure depending on
the number of very low-mass stars, which is highly uncertain. This can
be compared to the one trillion (10^12 ) stars of the neighbouring
Andromeda Galaxy </wiki/Andromeda_Galaxy>.^[14] <#cite_note-13> The
stellar disc does not have a sharp edge, a radius beyond which there are
no stars. Rather, the number of stars drops smoothly with distance from
the centre of the Galaxy. Beyond a radius of roughly 40,000 light-years
</wiki/Light-year> (4×10^17 km </wiki/Kilometre>) the number of stars
drops much faster with radius,^[15] <#cite_note-14> for reasons that are
not understood.
Extending beyond the stellar disk is a much thicker disk of gas. Recent
observations indicate that the gaseous disk of the Milky Way has a
thickness of around 12,000 ly (1×10^17 km)—twice the previously
accepted value.^[16] <#cite_note-15> As a guide to the relative physical
scale </wiki/Scale_(ratio)> of the Milky Way, if it were reduced to 10m
in diameter, the Solar System, including the hypothesized Oort cloud
</wiki/Oort_cloud>, would be no more than 0.1mm in width.
The Galactic Halo </wiki/Galactic_Halo> extends outward, but is limited
in size by the orbits of two Milky Way satellites, the Large and the
Small Magellanic Clouds </wiki/Magellanic_Clouds>, whose perigalacticon
</wiki/Apsis> is at ~180,000 ly (2×10^18 km).^[17] <#cite_note-16> At
this distance or beyond, the orbits of most halo objects would be
disrupted by the Magellanic Clouds, and the objects would likely be
ejected from the vicinity of the Milky Way.
[edit </w/index.php?title=Milky_Way&action=edit§ion=4>] Age
Main articles: Galaxy formation and evolution
</wiki/Galaxy_formation_and_evolution> and nucleocosmochronology
</wiki/Nucleocosmochronology>
</wiki/File:Perseid_Meteor.jpg>
</wiki/File:Perseid_Meteor.jpg>
A green and red Perseid </wiki/Perseids> meteor streaks across the sky
just below the Milky Way in August 2007.
In 2007, a star in the Galactic halo, HE 1523-0901 </wiki/HE_1523-0901>,
was estimated to be about 13.2 billion years old, nearly as old as the
Universe </wiki/Age_of_the_universe>. As the oldest known object in the
Milky Way at that time, it placed a lower limit on the age of the Milky
Way.^[5] <#cite_note-frebel-4> This estimate was determined using the
UV-Visual Echelle Spectrograph of the Very Large Telescope
</wiki/Very_Large_Telescope> to measure </wiki/Measurement> the relative
strengths of spectral lines </wiki/Spectral_line> caused by the presence
of Thorium </wiki/Thorium> and other elements </wiki/Chemical_element>
created by the R-process </wiki/R-process>. The line strengths yield
abundances of different elemental isotopes </wiki/Isotope>, from which
an estimate of the age of the star can be derived using
nucleocosmochronology </wiki/Nucleocosmochronology>.^[5]
<#cite_note-frebel-4>
The age of stars in the Galactic thin disk can be estimated in the same
way as HE 1523-0901. Measurements of thin disk stars yield an estimate
that the thin disk formed between 8.8 ± 1.7 billion years ago. This
suggest that there was a hiatus of almost 5 billion years between the
formation of the Galactic halo and the thin disk.^[18]
<#cite_note-del_Peloso-17>
[edit </w/index.php?title=Milky_Way&action=edit§ion=5>]
Composition and structure
</wiki/File:Milky_way_2_md.jpg>
</wiki/File:Milky_way_2_md.jpg>
The galactic center in the direction of Sagittarius
</wiki/Sagittarius_(constellation)>. The primary stars of Sagittarius
are indicated in red.
The galaxy consists of a bar-shaped core region surrounded by a disk of
gas, dust </wiki/Interstellar_medium> and stars forming four distinct
arm structures spiralling outward in a logarithmic spiral
</wiki/Logarithmic_spiral> shape (see Spiral arms
</wiki/The_Spiral_Arms_of_the_Milky_Way>). The mass distribution within
the galaxy closely resembles the Sbc Hubble classification
</wiki/Galaxy_morphological_classification>, which is a spiral galaxy
with relatively loosely wound arms.^[19] <#cite_note-18> Astronomers
first began to suspect that the Milky Way is a barred spiral galaxy
</wiki/Barred_spiral_galaxy>, rather than an ordinary spiral galaxy
</wiki/Spiral_galaxy>, in the 1990s.^[20] <#cite_note-19> Their
suspicions were confirmed by the Spitzer Space Telescope
</wiki/Spitzer_Space_Telescope> observations in 2005^[21]
<#cite_note-fn3-20> which showed the galaxy's central bar to be larger
than previously suspected.
Estimates for the mass of the Milky Way vary, depending upon the method
and data used. Recent estimates at the low end have placed the mass of
the Milky Way at 5.8 × 10^11 solar masses </wiki/Solar_mass> (M_☉ ),
somewhat smaller than the Andromeda Galaxy
</wiki/Andromeda_Galaxy>.^[22] <#cite_note-Karachentsevetal2006-21>
^[23] <#cite_note-mass-22> ^[24] <#cite_note-galmass-23> Other
measurements by the Very Long Baseline Array
</wiki/Very_Long_Baseline_Array> (VLBA) have found velocities as large
as 254 km/s for stars at the edge of the Milky Way, higher than the
previously accepted value of 220 km/s.^[25] <#cite_note-24> As the
orbital velocity depends on the mass enclosed, this implies that the
Milky Way is more massive, roughly equaling the mass of Andromeda Galaxy
at 7 × 10^11 solar masses </wiki/Solar_mass> (M_☉ ) within 50
kiloparsecs </wiki/Parsec> of its center.^[26] <#cite_note-reid2009-25>
A recent measurement of the radial velocity of halo stars finds the mass
enclosed within 80 kiloparsecs is 7 × 10^11 solar masses
</wiki/Solar_mass>.^[27] <#cite_note-gnedin2010-26> Most of the mass of
the galaxy is thought to be dark matter </wiki/Dark_matter>, which forms
a dark matter halo </wiki/Dark_matter_halo> that is spread out
relatively uniformly to a distance beyond one hundred kiloparsecs from
the Galactic center. The overall mass of the entire galaxy is estimated
at 600–1000 billion M_☉ ^[24] <#cite_note-galmass-23>
This mass in baryonic </wiki/Baryon> matter is estimated to include 200
to 400 billion stars.^[28] <#cite_note-27> Its integrated absolute
visual magnitude </wiki/Absolute_visual_magnitude> has been estimated to
be −20.9.^[29] <#cite_note-28>
[edit </w/index.php?title=Milky_Way&action=edit§ion=6>]
Galactic Center
Main article: Galactic Center </wiki/Galactic_Center>
</wiki/File:Milky_Way_Spiral_Arm.svg>
</wiki/File:Milky_Way_Spiral_Arm.svg>
Observed structure of the Milky Way's spiral arms. Our Sun </wiki/Sun>
is in the Local Spur.
The galactic disc, which bulges outward at the galactic center, has a
diameter of between 70,000 and 100,000 light-years.^[30]
<#cite_note-Galactic_bluge-29> The distance from the Sun to the galactic
center is now estimated at 26,000 ± 1,400 light-years, while older
estimates could put the Sun as far as 35,000 light-years from the
central bulge.
The galactic center harbors a compact object of very large mass as
determined by the motion of material around the center.^[31]
<#cite_note-Jones-30> The intense radio source named Sagittarius A*
</wiki/Sagittarius_A*>, thought to mark the center of the Milky Way, is
newly confirmed to be a supermassive black hole
</wiki/Supermassive_black_hole>. For a photo see Chandra X-ray
Observatory; Jan. 6, 2003
<http://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/2003/0203long/>. Most galaxies are
believed to have a supermassive black hole at their center.^[32]
<#cite_note-31>
The galaxy's bar is thought to be about 27,000 light-years long, running
through its center at a 44 ± 10 degree angle to the line between the Sun
and the center of the galaxy. It is composed primarily of red stars,
believed to be ancient (see red dwarf </wiki/Red_dwarf>, red giant
</wiki/Red_giant>). The bar is surrounded by a ring called the "5-kpc
</wiki/Kiloparsec> ring" that contains a large fraction of the molecular
hydrogen present in the galaxy, as well as most of the Milky Way's star
formation </wiki/Star_formation> activity. Viewed from the Andromeda
Galaxy </wiki/Andromeda_Galaxy>, it would be the brightest feature of
our own galaxy.^[33] <#cite_note-fn14-32>
[edit </w/index.php?title=Milky_Way&action=edit§ion=7>] Spiral
arms
</wiki/File:Milky_Way_Arms.svg>
</wiki/File:Milky_Way_Arms.svg>
Observed and extrapolated structure of the spiral arms.
</wiki/File:236084main_MilkyWay-full-annotated.jpg>
</wiki/File:236084main_MilkyWay-full-annotated.jpg>
Artist's conception of the spiral structure of the Milky Way with two
major stellar arms and a bar.^[34] <#cite_note-two_arms-33>
Each spiral arm describes a logarithmic spiral
</wiki/Logarithmic_spiral> (as do the arms of all spiral galaxies) with
a pitch of approximately 12 degrees. Until recently, there were believed
to be four major spiral arms which all start near the galaxy's center.
These are named as follows, according to the image at right:
Color Arm(s)
cyan 3-kpc </wiki/Parsec> and Perseus Arm </wiki/Perseus_Arm>
purple Norma </wiki/Norma_Arm> and Outer arm </wiki/Outer_arm> (Along
with a newly discovered extension)
green Scutum-Crux Arm </wiki/Scutum-Crux_Arm>
pink Carina and Sagittarius Arm </wiki/Sagittarius_Arm>
/There are at least two smaller arms or spurs, including:/
orange Orion-Cygnus arm </wiki/Orion_Arm> (which contains the Sun
</wiki/Sun> and Solar System </wiki/Solar_System>)
Observations presented in 2008 by Robert Benjamin of the University of
Wisconsin-Whitewater </wiki/University_of_Wisconsin-Whitewater> suggest
that the Milky Way possesses only two major stellar arms: the Perseus
arm and the Scutum-Centaurus arm. The rest of the arms are minor or
adjunct arms.^[34] <#cite_note-two_arms-33> This would mean that the
Milky Way is similar in appearance to NGC 1365 </wiki/NGC_1365>.
Outside of the major spiral arms is the Monoceros Ring
</wiki/Monoceros_Ring> (or Outer Ring), proposed by astronomers Brian
Yanny and Heidi Jo Newberg </wiki/Heidi_Jo_Newberg>, a ring of gas and
stars torn from other galaxies billions of years ago.
As is typical for many galaxies, the distribution of mass in the Milky
Way Galaxy is such that the orbital speed </wiki/Orbital_speed> of most
stars in the galaxy does not depend strongly on its distance from the
center. Away from the central bulge or outer rim, the typical stellar
velocity is between 210 and 240 km/s.^[35] <#cite_note-fn4-34> Hence the
orbital period </wiki/Orbital_period> of the typical star is directly
proportional only to the length of the path traveled. This is unlike the
situation within the Solar System, where two-body gravitational dynamics
dominate and different orbits are expected to have significantly
different velocities associated with them. This difference is one of the
major pieces of evidence for the existence of dark matter
</wiki/Dark_matter>. Another interesting aspect is the so-called
"wind-up problem" of the spiral arms. If the inner parts of the arms
rotate faster than the outer part, then the galaxy will wind up so much
that the spiral structure will be thinned out. But this is not what is
observed in spiral galaxies; instead, astronomers propose that the
spiral pattern is a density wave emanating from the galactic center.
This can be likened to a moving traffic jam on a highway—the cars are
all moving, but there is always a region of slow-moving cars. This model
also agrees with enhanced star formation in or near spiral arms; the
compressional waves increase the density of molecular hydrogen and
protostars form as a result.
[edit </w/index.php?title=Milky_Way&action=edit§ion=8>] Halo
The galactic disk is surrounded by a spheroid halo
</wiki/Galactic_spheroid> of old stars and globular clusters
</wiki/Globular_cluster>, of which 90% lie within 100,000
light-years,^[36] <#cite_note-35> suggesting a stellar halo diameter of
200,000 light-years. However, a few globular clusters have been found
farther, such as PAL 4 and AM1 at more than 200,000 light-years away
from the galactic center. About 40% of these clusters are on retrograde
orbits </wiki/Retrograde_orbit>, which means they move in the opposite
direction from the Milky Way rotation.^[37] <#cite_note-36> The globular
clusters can follow rosette orbits </wiki/Rosette_orbit> about the
galaxy, in contrast to the elliptical orbit </wiki/Elliptical_orbit> of
a planet.^[38] <#cite_note-apj522-37>
While the disk contains gas and dust which obscure the view in some
wavelengths, the spheroid component does not. Active star formation
</wiki/Star_formation> takes place in the disk (especially in the spiral
arms, which represent areas of high density), but not in the halo. Open
clusters </wiki/Open_cluster> also occur primarily in the disk.
Discoveries in the early 21st century have added dimension to the
knowledge of the Milky Way's structure. With the discovery that the disk
of the Andromeda Galaxy </wiki/Andromeda_Galaxy> (M31) extends much
further than previously thought,^[39] <#cite_note-fn5-38> the
possibility of the disk of the Milky Way galaxy extending further is
apparent, and this is supported by evidence from the discovery of the
Outer Arm extension of the Cygnus Arm </wiki/Cygnus_Arm>.^[40]
<#cite_note-fn6-39> With the discovery of the Sagittarius Dwarf
Elliptical Galaxy </wiki/Sagittarius_Dwarf_Elliptical_Galaxy> came the
discovery of a ribbon of galactic debris as the polar orbit of the dwarf
and its interaction with the Milky Way tears it apart. Similarly, with
the discovery of the Canis Major Dwarf Galaxy
</wiki/Canis_Major_Dwarf_Galaxy>, it was found that a ring of galactic
debris from its interaction with the Milky Way encircles the galactic disk.
On January 9, 2006, Mario Jurić </wiki/Mario_Juri%C4%87> and others of
Princeton University </wiki/Princeton_University> announced that the
Sloan Digital Sky Survey </wiki/Sloan_Digital_Sky_Survey> of the
northern sky found a huge and diffuse structure (spread out across an
area around 5,000 times the size of a full moon) within the Milky Way
that does not seem to fit within current models. The collection of stars
rises close to perpendicular to the plane of the spiral arms of the
galaxy. The proposed likely interpretation is that a dwarf galaxy
</wiki/Dwarf_galaxy> is merging with the Milky Way. This galaxy is
tentatively named the Virgo Stellar Stream </wiki/Virgo_Stellar_Stream>
and is found in the direction of Virgo </wiki/Virgo_(constellation)>
about 30,000 light-years away.
[edit </w/index.php?title=Milky_Way&action=edit§ion=9>] Sun's
location and neighborhood
The Sun </wiki/Sun> (and therefore the Earth </wiki/Earth> and the Solar
System </wiki/Solar_System>) may be found close to the inner rim of the
galaxy's Orion Arm </wiki/Orion_Arm>, in the Local Fluff
</wiki/Local_Fluff> inside the Local Bubble </wiki/Local_Bubble>, and in
the Gould Belt </wiki/Gould_Belt>, at a distance of 7.62±0.32 kpc
</wiki/Kiloparsec> (~25,000±1,000 ly </wiki/Light-year>) from the
Galactic Center </wiki/Galactic_Center>.^[41] <#cite_note-distance1-40>
^[42] <#cite_note-distance2-41> ^[43] <#cite_note-distance3-42> ^[44]
<#cite_note-eisenhaueretal2005-43> ^[45] <#cite_note-majaess2009-44> The
Sun is currently 5–30 parsecs from the central plane of the galactic
disc.^[45] <#cite_note-majaess2009-44> The distance between the local
arm and the next arm out, the Perseus Arm </wiki/Perseus_Arm>, is about
6,500 light-years.^[46] <#cite_note-fn9-45> The Sun, and thus the Solar
System, is found in the galactic habitable zone
</wiki/Habitable_zone#Galactic_habitable_zone>.
There are about 208 stars brighter than absolute magnitude
</wiki/Absolute_magnitude> 8.5 within 15 parsecs </wiki/Parsec> of the
Sun, giving a density of 0.0147 such stars per cubic parsec, or 0.000424
per cubic light-year (from List of nearest bright stars
</wiki/List_of_nearest_bright_stars>). On the other hand, there are 64
known stars (of any magnitude, not counting 4 brown dwarfs
</wiki/Brown_dwarf>) within 5 parsecs of the Sun, giving a density of
0.122 stars per cubic parsec, or 0.00352 per cubic light-year (from List
of nearest stars </wiki/List_of_nearest_stars>), illustrating the fact
that most stars are less bright than absolute magnitude 8.5.
The Apex of the Sun's Way, or the solar apex </wiki/Solar_apex>, is the
direction that the Sun travels through space in the Milky Way. The
general direction of the Sun's galactic motion is towards the star Vega
</wiki/Vega> near the constellation of Hercules
</wiki/Hercules_(constellation)>, at an angle of roughly 60 sky degrees
to the direction of the Galactic Center </wiki/Galactic_Center>. The
Sun's orbit around the Galaxy is expected to be roughly elliptical with
the addition of perturbations due to the galactic spiral arms and
non-uniform mass distributions. In addition, the Sun oscillates up and
down relative to the galactic plane approximately 2.7 times per orbit.
This is very similar to how a simple harmonic oscillator
</wiki/Simple_harmonic_oscillator> works with no drag force (damping)
term. These oscillations were until recently thought to coincide with
mass extinction </wiki/Mass_extinction> periods on Earth.^[47]
<#cite_note-extinction-46> However, a reanalysis of the effects of the
Sun's transit through the spiral structure based on CO data has failed
to find these correlations.^[48] <#cite_note-overholt_etal-47>
It takes the Solar System about 225–250 million years to complete one
orbit of the galaxy (a /galactic year </wiki/Galactic_year>/),^[49]
<#cite_note-fn10-48> so it is thought to have completed 20–25 orbits
during the lifetime of the Sun and 1/1250 of a revolution since the
origin of humans </wiki/Origin_of_humans>. The orbital speed
</wiki/Orbital_speed> of the Solar System about the center of the Galaxy
is approximately 220 km/s. At this speed, it takes around 1,400 years
for the Solar System to travel a distance of 1 light-year, or 8 days to
travel 1 AU (astronomical unit </wiki/Astronomical_unit>).^[50]
<#cite_note-49>
</wiki/File:Universe_Reference_Map_(Location)_001.jpeg>
</wiki/File:Universe_Reference_Map_(Location)_001.jpeg>
A diagram of our location in the Local Supercluster
</wiki/Local_Supercluster>. Click to view more detail.
[edit </w/index.php?title=Milky_Way&action=edit§ion=10>] Environment
Main articles: Local group </wiki/Local_group> and Andromeda-Milky Way
collision </wiki/Andromeda-Milky_Way_collision>
</wiki/File:Ssc2008-11a.jpg>
</wiki/File:Ssc2008-11a.jpg>
Broad infrared view of our Milky Way Galaxy from the Spitzer Space
Telescope </wiki/Spitzer_Space_Telescope> created from more than 800,000
frames. This is the most detailed infrared picture of our galaxy to date.
</wiki/File:Guisard_-_Milky_Way.jpg>
</wiki/File:Guisard_-_Milky_Way.jpg>
Milky way starscape taken from Paranal </wiki/Paranal>.
</wiki/File:Location_of_central_region_observed_in_whole_panorama_of_the_Milky_Way.jpg>
</wiki/File:Location_of_central_region_observed_in_whole_panorama_of_the_Milky_Way.jpg>
Location of the starscape in relation to the rest of the galaxy.
The Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy </wiki/Andromeda_Galaxy> are a
binary system </wiki/Binary_system_(astronomy)> of giant spiral galaxies
belonging to a group of 50 closely bound galaxies known as the Local
Group </wiki/Local_Group>, itself being part of the Virgo Supercluster
</wiki/Virgo_Supercluster>.
Two smaller galaxies and a number of dwarf galaxies </wiki/Dwarf_galaxy>
in the Local Group orbit </wiki/Orbit> the Milky Way. The largest of
these is the Large Magellanic Cloud </wiki/Large_Magellanic_Cloud> with
a diameter of 20,000 light-years. It has a close companion, the Small
Magellanic Cloud </wiki/Small_Magellanic_Cloud>. The Magellanic Stream
</wiki/Magellanic_Stream> is a peculiar streamer of neutral hydrogen
</wiki/Hydrogen> gas connecting these two small galaxies. The stream is
thought to have been dragged from the Magellanic Clouds in tidal
interactions with the Milky Way. Some of the dwarf galaxies orbiting the
Milky Way </wiki/Milky_Way%27s_satellite_galaxies> are Canis Major Dwarf
</wiki/Canis_Major_Dwarf> (the closest), Sagittarius Dwarf Elliptical
Galaxy </wiki/Sagittarius_Dwarf_Elliptical_Galaxy>, Ursa Minor Dwarf
</wiki/Ursa_Minor_Dwarf>, Sculptor Dwarf </wiki/Sculptor_Dwarf>, Sextans
Dwarf </wiki/Sextans_Dwarf>, Fornax Dwarf </wiki/Fornax_Dwarf>, and Leo
I Dwarf </wiki/Leo_I_Dwarf>. The smallest Milky Way dwarf galaxies are
only 500 light-years in diameter. These include Carina Dwarf
</wiki/Carina_Dwarf>, Draco Dwarf </wiki/Draco_Dwarf>, and Leo II Dwarf
</wiki/Leo_II_(dwarf_galaxy)>. There may still be undetected dwarf
galaxies, which are dynamically bound to the Milky Way, as well as some
that have already been absorbed by the Milky Way, such as Omega Centauri
</wiki/Omega_Centauri>. Observations through the zone of avoidance
</wiki/Zone_of_avoidance> are frequently detecting new distant and
nearby galaxies. Some galaxies consisting mostly of gas and dust may
also have evaded detection so far.
In January 2006, researchers reported that the heretofore unexplained
warp in the disk of the Milky Way has now been mapped and found to be a
ripple or vibration set up by the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds as
they circle the Galaxy, causing vibrations at certain frequencies when
they pass through its edges.^[51] <#cite_note-50> Previously, these two
galaxies, at around 2% of the mass of the Milky Way, were considered too
small to influence the Milky Way. However, by taking into account dark
matter </wiki/Dark_matter>, the movement of these two galaxies creates a
wake that influences the larger Milky Way. Taking dark matter into
account results in an approximately twenty-fold increase in mass for the
Galaxy. This calculation is according to a computer model made by Martin
Weinberg of the University of Massachusetts, Amherst
</wiki/University_of_Massachusetts,_Amherst>. In this model, the dark
matter is spreading out from the galactic disc with the known gas layer.
As a result, the model predicts that the gravitational effect of the
Magellanic Clouds is amplified as they pass through the Galaxy.
Current measurements suggest the Andromeda Galaxy
</wiki/Andromeda_Galaxy> is approaching us at 100 to 140 kilometers per
second. The Milky Way may collide with it in 3 to 4 billion years,
depending on the importance of unknown lateral components to the
galaxies' relative motion. If they collide, individual stars within the
galaxies would not collide, but instead the two galaxies will merge to
form a single elliptical galaxy </wiki/Elliptical_galaxy> over the
course of about a billion years.^[52] <#cite_note-51>
[edit </w/index.php?title=Milky_Way&action=edit§ion=11>] Velocity
</wiki/File:Rotation_curve_(Milky_Way).JPG>
</wiki/File:Rotation_curve_(Milky_Way).JPG>
Galaxy rotation curve </wiki/Galaxy_rotation_curve> for the Milky Way.
Vertical axis is speed of rotation about the galactic center
</wiki/Galactic_center>. Horizontal axis is distance from the galactic
center in kpcs </wiki/Kiloparsec#Parsecs_and_kiloparsecs>. The sun is
marked with a yellow ball. The observed curve of speed of rotation is
blue. The predicted curve based upon stellar mass and gas in the Milky
Way is red. Scatter in observations roughly indicated by gray bars. The
difference is due to dark matter </wiki/Dark_matter> or perhaps a
modification of the law of gravity </wiki/MOND>.^[53]
<#cite_note-Schneider-52> ^[54] <#cite_note-Koupelis-53> ^[55]
<#cite_note-Jones1-54>
In the general sense, the absolute velocity of any object through space
is not a meaningful question according to Einstein
</wiki/Albert_Einstein>'s special theory of relativity
</wiki/Special_relativity>, which declares that there is no "preferred"
inertial frame of reference </wiki/Inertial_frame_of_reference> in space
with which to compare the object's motion. (Motion must always be
specified with respect to another object.) This must be kept in mind
when discussing the Galaxy's motion.
Astronomers believe the Milky Way is moving at approximately 630 km per
second relative to the local co-moving frame of reference that moves
with the Hubble flow </wiki/Hubble_flow>.^[56] <#cite_note-Jones2-55> If
the Galaxy is moving at 600 km/s, Earth travels 51.84 million km per
day, or more than 18.9 billion km per year, about 4.5 times its closest
distance from Pluto </wiki/Pluto>. The Milky Way is thought to be moving
in the direction of the Great Attractor </wiki/Great_Attractor>. The
Local Group </wiki/Local_Group> (a cluster of gravitationally bound
galaxies containing, among others, the Milky Way and the Andromeda
galaxy </wiki/Andromeda_galaxy>) is part of a supercluster
</wiki/Supercluster> called the Local Supercluster
</wiki/Local_Supercluster>, centered near the Virgo Cluster
</wiki/Virgo_Cluster>: although they are moving away from each other at
967 km/s as part of the Hubble flow </wiki/Hubble_flow>, the velocity is
less than would be expected given the 16.8 million pc distance due to
the gravitational attraction between the Local Group and the Virgo
Cluster.^[57] <#cite_note-56>
Another reference frame is provided by the cosmic microwave background
</wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background> (CMB). The Milky Way is moving at
around 552 km/s^[8] <#cite_note-dipole-7> with respect to the photons of
the CMB, toward 10.5 right ascension </wiki/Right_ascension>, -24°
declination </wiki/Declination> (J2000 </wiki/J2000> epoch, near the
center of Hydra </wiki/Hydra_(constellation)>). This motion is observed
by satellites such as the Cosmic Background Explorer
</wiki/Cosmic_Background_Explorer> (COBE) and the Wilkinson Microwave
Anisotropy Probe </wiki/Wilkinson_Microwave_Anisotropy_Probe> (WMAP) as
a dipole contribution to the CMB, as photons in equilibrium in the CMB
frame get blue-shifted </wiki/Doppler_effect> in the direction of the
motion and red-shifted </wiki/Redshift> in the opposite
direction.^[/citation needed </wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed>/]
The galaxy rotates about its center according to its galaxy rotation
curve </wiki/Galaxy_rotation_curve> as shown in the figure. The
discrepancy between the observed curve (relatively flat) and the curve
based upon the known mass of the stars and gas in the Milky Way
(decaying curve) is attributed to dark matter </wiki/Dark_matter>.^[58]
<#cite_note-Kuhn-57>
[edit </w/index.php?title=Milky_Way&action=edit§ion=12>] History
[edit </w/index.php?title=Milky_Way&action=edit§ion=13>]
Etymology and beliefs
Main articles: List of names for the Milky Way
</wiki/List_of_names_for_the_Milky_Way> and Milky Way (mythology)
</wiki/Milky_Way_(mythology)>
There are many creation myths </wiki/Creation_myth> around the world
which explain the origin of the Milky Way and give it its name. The
English </wiki/English_language> phrase is a translation from Ancient
Greek </wiki/Ancient_Greek> Γαλαξίας, /Galaxias/, which is derived from
the word for milk (γάλα, /gala/). This is also the origin of the word
/galaxy </wiki/Galaxy>/. In Greek myth </wiki/Greek_mythology>, the
Milky Way was caused by milk spilt by Hera </wiki/Hera> when suckling
Heracles </wiki/Heracles>.
In Sanskrit </wiki/Sanskrit> and several other Indo-Aryan languages
</wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages>, the Milky Way is called /Akash Ganga/
(आकाशगंगा, /Ganges </wiki/Ganges> of the heavens/).^[59]
<#cite_note-jackson1989-58> The milky way is held to be sacred in the
Hindu scriptures known as the Puranas </wiki/Puranas>, and the Ganges
and the milky way are considered to be terrestrial-celestial analogs of
each other.^[59] <#cite_note-jackson1989-58> ^[60]
<#cite_note-spencer1965-59> However, the term /Kshira/ (कà¥à¤·à¥€à¤°, /milk/) is
also used as an alternative name for the milky way in Hindu texts.^[61]
<#cite_note-sachau2001-60>
In a large area from Central Asia </wiki/Central_Asia> to Africa
</wiki/Africa>, the name for the Milky Way is related to the word for
"straw </wiki/Straw>". This may have originated in ancient Armenian
mythology </wiki/Armenian_mythology>, (Õ…Õ¡Ö€Õ¤ Õ¦Õ¸Õ²Õ« ÕƒÕ¡Õ¶Õ¡ÕºÕ¡Ö€Õ° /hard goghi
chanaparh/, or "Trail of the Straw Thief"), and been carried abroad by
Arabs </wiki/Arab>.^[62] <#cite_note-61> In several Uralic
</wiki/Uralic_languages>, Turkic languages </wiki/Turkic_languages>,
Finno-Ugric languages </wiki/Finno-Ugric_languages> and in the Baltic
languages </wiki/Baltic_languages> the Milky Way is called the "Birds'
Path" (/Linnunrata/ in Finnish </wiki/Finnish_language>), since the
route of the migratory birds </wiki/Migratory_birds> appear to follow
the Milky Way. (The Qi Xi </wiki/Qi_Xi> legend celebrated in many Asian
cultures </wiki/Culture_of_Asia> references a seasonal bridge /across/
the Milky Way formed by birds, usually magpies or crows.) The Chinese
</wiki/Chinese_language> name "Silver River" (銀河) is used throughout
East Asia </wiki/East_Asia>, including Korea </wiki/Korea> and Japan
</wiki/Japan>. An alternative name for the Milky Way in ancient China,
especially in poems, is "Heavenly Han River
</wiki/Han_River_(Hanshui)>"(天汉). In Japanese
</wiki/Japanese_language>, "Silver River" (銀河 /ginga/) means galaxies
in general and the Milky Way is called the "Silver River System" (銀河系
/gingakei/) or the "River of Heaven" (天ã®å· /Amanokawa or Amanogawa/).
In Swedish </wiki/Swedish_language>, it is called /Vintergatan/, or
"Winter Avenue", because the stars in the belt were used to predict when
winter would arrive.^[/citation needed
</wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed>/] In some of the Iberian languages
</wiki/Iberian_languages>, the Milky Way's name translates as the "Road
of Saint James </wiki/James,_son_of_Zebedee>" (e.g., in Spanish it is
sometimes called "/El camino de Santiago/").
[edit </w/index.php?title=Milky_Way&action=edit§ion=14>] Discovery
See also: Galaxy—Observation history </wiki/Galaxy#Observation_history>
</wiki/File:Herschel-Galaxy.png>
</wiki/File:Herschel-Galaxy.png>
The shape of the Milky Way as deduced from star counts by William
Herschel in 1785; the Solar System was assumed near center.
</wiki/File:Pic_iroberts1.jpg>
</wiki/File:Pic_iroberts1.jpg>
Photograph of the "Great Andromeda Nebula" from 1899, later identified
as the Andromeda Galaxy </wiki/Andromeda_Galaxy>.
As Aristotle </wiki/Aristotle> (384-322 BC) informs us in /Meteorologica
</wiki/Meteorologica>/ (DK 59 A80), the Greek philosophers
</wiki/Greek_philosophy> Anaxagoras </wiki/Anaxagoras> (ca. 500–428 BC)
and Democritus </wiki/Democritus> (450–370 BC) proposed the Milky Way
might consist of distant stars </wiki/Star>; Democritus stated in his
writings that "The Milk of Hera swirls around a centrepoint"^[/citation
needed </wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed>/] , perhaps also referring to
the movement of the galaxy around the galactic centre. However,
Aristotle himself believed the Milky Way to be caused by "the ignition
of the fiery exhalation of some stars which were large, numerous and
close together" and that the "ignition takes place in the upper part of
the atmosphere </wiki/Atmosphere>, in the region of the world which is
continuous with the heavenly motions </wiki/Sublunary_sphere>."^[63]
<#cite_note-Montada-62> The Arabian astronomer
</wiki/Astronomy_in_medieval_Islam>, Alhazen </wiki/Ibn_al-Haytham>
(965-1037 AD), refuted this by making the first attempt at observing and
measuring the Milky Way's parallax </wiki/Parallax>,^[64]
<#cite_note-63> and he thus "determined that because the Milky Way had
no parallax, it was very remote from the earth </wiki/Earth> and did not
belong to the atmosphere."^[65] <#cite_note-64>
The Persian </wiki/Persian_people> astronomer AbÅ« RayhÄn al-BÄ«rÅ«nÄ«
</wiki/Ab%C5%AB_Rayh%C4%81n_al-B%C4%ABr%C5%ABn%C4%AB> (973-1048)
proposed the Milky Way galaxy </wiki/Galaxy> to be a collection of
countless nebulous </wiki/Nebula> stars.^[66] <#cite_note-65> The
Andalusian </wiki/Al-Andalus> astronomer Avempace </wiki/Ibn_Bajjah> (d.
1138) proposed the Milky Way to be made up of many stars but appears to
be a continuous image due to the effect of refraction </wiki/Refraction>
in the Earth's atmosphere </wiki/Earth%27s_atmosphere>, citing his
observation of the conjunction
</wiki/Conjunction_(astronomy_and_astrology)> of Jupiter and Mars on 500
AH </wiki/Islamic_calendar> (1106/1107 AD) as evidence.^[63]
<#cite_note-Montada-62> Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya
</wiki/Ibn_Qayyim_Al-Jawziyya> (1292–1350) proposed the Milky Way galaxy
to be "a myriad of tiny stars packed together in the sphere of the fixed
stars" and that that these stars are larger than planets
</wiki/Planet>.^[67] <#cite_note-Livingston-66>
Actual proof of the Milky Way consisting of many stars came in 1610 when
Galileo Galilei </wiki/Galileo_Galilei> used a telescope
</wiki/Optical_telescope> to study the Milky Way and discovered that it
was composed of a huge number of faint stars.^[68] <#cite_note-67> In a
treatise in 1755, Immanuel Kant </wiki/Immanuel_Kant>, drawing on
earlier work by Thomas Wright </wiki/Thomas_Wright_(astronomer)>,
speculated (correctly) that the Milky Way might be a rotating body of a
huge number of stars, held together by gravitational forces
</wiki/Gravitation> akin to the Solar System but on much larger scales.
The resulting disk of stars would be seen as a band on the sky from our
perspective inside the disk. Kant also conjectured that some of the
nebulae </wiki/Nebula> visible in the night sky might be separate
"galaxies" themselves, similar to our own.^[69] <#cite_note-our_galaxy-68>
The first attempt to describe the shape of the Milky Way and the
position of the Sun </wiki/Sun> within it was carried out by William
Herschel </wiki/William_Herschel> in 1785 by carefully counting the
number of stars in different regions of the visible sky. He produced a
diagram of the shape of the Galaxy with the Solar System close to the
center.
In 1845, Lord Rosse </wiki/William_Parsons,_3rd_Earl_of_Rosse>
constructed a new telescope and was able to distinguish between
elliptical and spiral-shaped nebulae. He also managed to make out
individual point sources in some of these nebulae, lending credence to
Kant's earlier conjecture.^[70] <#cite_note-69>
In 1917, Heber Curtis </wiki/Heber_Curtis> had observed the nova S
Andromedae </wiki/S_Andromedae> within the "Great Andromeda
</wiki/Andromeda_(constellation)> Nebula" (Messier object
</wiki/Messier_object> M31 </wiki/Andromeda_Galaxy>). Searching the
photographic record, he found 11 more novae </wiki/Nova>. Curtis noticed
that these novae were, on average, 10 magnitudes
</wiki/Magnitude_(astronomy)> fainter than those that occurred within
our galaxy. As a result he was able to come up with a distance estimate
of 150,000 parsecs. He became a proponent of the "island universes"
hypothesis, which held that the spiral nebulae were actually independent
galaxies.^[71] <#cite_note-70> In 1920 the Great Debate
</wiki/The_Great_Debate> took place between Harlow Shapley
</wiki/Harlow_Shapley> and Heber Curtis, concerning the nature of the
Milky Way, spiral nebulae, and the dimensions of the universe. To
support his claim that the Great Andromeda Nebula was an external
galaxy, Curtis noted the appearance of dark lanes resembling the dust
clouds in the Milky Way, as well as the significant Doppler shift
</wiki/Doppler_effect>.^[72] <#cite_note-71>
The matter was conclusively settled by Edwin Hubble </wiki/Edwin_Hubble>
in the early 1920s using a new telescope. He was able to resolve the
outer parts of some spiral nebulae as collections of individual stars
and identified some Cepheid variables </wiki/Cepheid_variable>, thus
allowing him to estimate the distance to the nebulae: they were far too
distant to be part of the Milky Way.^[73] <#cite_note-72> In 1936,
Hubble produced a classification system for galaxies that is used to
this day, the Hubble sequence </wiki/Hubble_sequence>.^[74] <#cite_note-73>
[edit </w/index.php?title=Milky_Way&action=edit§ion=15>] See also
</wiki/File:Crab_Nebula.jpg> /*Astronomy portal </wiki/Portal:Astronomy>*/
</wiki/File:He1523a.jpg> /*Star portal </wiki/Portal:Star>*/
</wiki/File:Earth-moon.jpg> /*Space portal </wiki/Portal:Space>*/
* Galactic coordinate system </wiki/Galactic_coordinate_system>
* Dark matter halo </wiki/Dark_matter_halo>
* Smith's Cloud </wiki/Smith%27s_Cloud>
* Oort Constants </wiki/Oort_Constants>
* The Great Rift </wiki/Great_Rift_(astronomy)>, a molecular dust
cloud located between the solar system and the Sagittarius Arm of
the Milky Way which appears to split the Milky Way into two lanes
over a third of its length
* MilkyWay@Home </wiki/MilkyWay@Home>, a distributed computing
project that attempts to generate highly accurate
three-dimensional dynamic models of stellar streams in the
immediate vicinity of our Milky Way galaxy.
[edit </w/index.php?title=Milky_Way&action=edit§ion=16>] References
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Lakhdar (2005). "Popularisation of Optical Phenomena: Establishing
the First Ibn Al-Haytham Workshop on Photography"
<http://spie.org/etop/ETOP2005_080.pdf> (PDF). The Education and
Training in Optics and Photonics Conference.
http://spie.org/etop/ETOP2005_080.pdf. Retrieved 2008-07-08.
66. *^ <#cite_ref-65>* O'Connor, John J.
</wiki/John_J._O%27Connor_(mathematician)>; Robertson, Edmund F.
</wiki/Edmund_F._Robertson>, "Abu Rayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad
al-Biruni"
<http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Al-Biruni.html>,
/MacTutor History of Mathematics archive
</wiki/MacTutor_History_of_Mathematics_archive>/, University of St
Andrews </wiki/University_of_St_Andrews>,
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Al-Biruni.html .
67. *^ <#cite_ref-Livingston_66-0>* Livingston, John W. (1971). "Ibn
Qayyim al-Jawziyyah: A Fourteenth Century Defense against
Astrological Divination and Alchemical Transmutation"
<http://jstor.org/stable/600445>. /Journal of the American
Oriental Society/ (American Oriental Society) *91* (1): 96–103
[99]. doi </wiki/Digital_object_identifier>:10.2307/600445
<http://dx.doi.org/10.2307%2F600445>. http://jstor.org/stable/600445.
68. *^ <#cite_ref-67>* O'Connor, J. J.; Robertson, E. F. (November
2002). "Galileo Galilei"
<http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Galileo.html>.
University of St Andrews.
http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Galileo.html.
Retrieved 2007-01-08.
69. *^ <#cite_ref-our_galaxy_68-0>* Evans, J. C. (November 24, 1998).
"Our Galaxy"
<http://physics.gmu.edu/~jevans/astr103/CourseNotes/ECText/ch20_txt.htm>.
George Mason University.
http://physics.gmu.edu/~jevans/astr103/CourseNotes/ECText/ch20_txt.htm.
Retrieved 2007-01-04.
70. *^ <#cite_ref-69>* Abbey, Lenny. "The Earl of Rosse and the
Leviathan of Parsontown"
<http://labbey.com/Telescopes/Parsontown.html>. The Compleat
Amateur Astronomer. http://labbey.com/Telescopes/Parsontown.html.
Retrieved 2007-01-04.
71. *^ <#cite_ref-70>* Heber D. Curtis </wiki/Heber_Doust_Curtis>
(1988). "Novae in Spiral Nebulae and the Island Universe Theory"
<http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1988PASP..100....6C>. /Publications
of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific/ *100*: 6. doi
</wiki/Digital_object_identifier>:10.1086/132128
<http://dx.doi.org/10.1086%2F132128>.
http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1988PASP..100....6C.
72. *^ <#cite_ref-71>* Weaver, Harold F.. "Robert Julius Trumpler"
<http://www.nap.edu/readingroom/books/biomems/rtrumpler.html>.
National Academy of Sciences.
http://www.nap.edu/readingroom/books/biomems/rtrumpler.html.
Retrieved 2007-01-05.
73. *^ <#cite_ref-72>* Hubble, E. P. </wiki/Edwin_Hubble> (1929). "A
spiral nebula as a stellar system, Messier 31"
<http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/bib_query?1929ApJ....69..103H>.
/Astrophysical Journal/ *69*: 103–158. doi
</wiki/Digital_object_identifier>:10.1086/143167
<http://dx.doi.org/10.1086%2F143167>.
http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/bib_query?1929ApJ....69..103H.
74. *^ <#cite_ref-73>* Sandage, Allan (1989). "Edwin Hubble,
1889–1953"
<http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/diamond_jubilee/1996/sandage_hubble.html>.
/The Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada/ *83*
(6).
http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/diamond_jubilee/1996/sandage_hubble.html.
Retrieved 2007-01-08.
[edit </w/index.php?title=Milky_Way&action=edit§ion=17>] Further
reading
* Thorsten Dambeck in /Sky and Telescope/, "Gaia's Mission to the
Milky Way", March 2008, p. 36–39.
* Cristina Chiappini, The Formation and Evolution of the Milky Way,
American Scientist, November/December 2001, pp. 506-515
<http://www.astro.caltech.edu/~george/ay20/Chiappini-MilkyWay.pdf>
[edit </w/index.php?title=Milky_Way&action=edit§ion=18>]
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: /*Milky Way Galaxy
<http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Milky_Way_Galaxy>*/
* The Milky Way Galaxy
<http://www.atlasoftheuniverse.com/galaxy.html> from /An Atlas of
the Universe/
* Basic Milky Way plan map <http://galaxymap.org/drupal/node/171>,
including spiral arms and the Orion spur
* A 3D map of the Milky Way Galaxy <http://www.3dgalaxymap.com/>
* Chromoscope <http://www.chromoscope.net/> Tools to Explore the
known Milky Way
* Milky Way – IRAS (infrared) survey
<http://www.sky-map.org/?ra=12.0593794293245&de=-20.27239516216098&zoom=0&show_grid=1&show_constellation_lines=1&show_constellation_boundaries=1&show_const_names=0&show_galaxies=1&img_source=IRAS>
wikisky.org
* Milky Way – H-Alpha survey
<http://www.sky-map.org/?ra=12.0593794293245&de=-20.27239516216098&zoom=0&show_grid=1&show_constellation_lines=1&show_constellation_boundaries=1&show_const_names=0&show_galaxies=1&img_source=HALPHA>
wikisky.org
* Interactive full screen Silverlight map of the Milky Way
<http://www.marsdrive.com/Interactive/MilkyWay.aspx>
* Running Rings Around the Galaxy
<http://www.spitzer.caltech.edu/Media/happenings/20070530/index.shtml>
Spitzer Space Telescope News
* The Milky Way Galaxy <http://www.seds.org/messier/more/mw.html>,
SEDS Messier pages
* MultiWavelength Milky Way <http://mwmw.gsfc.nasa.gov/>, NASA site
with images and VRML </wiki/VRML> models
* Milky Way Explorer <http://galaxymap.org/drupal/node/127>,
detailed images in infrared with radio, microwave and
hydrogen-alpha as well
* The Milky Way at the Astro-Photography Site Of Mister T. Yoshida.
<http://ryutao.main.jp/english/film_milkyway_l.html>
* Widefield Image of the Summer Milky Way
<http://www.perseus.gr/Astro-Milky-Way-20050710.htm>
* Proposed Ring around the Milky Way
<http://www.solstation.com/x-objects/gal-ring.htm>
* Milky Way spiral gets an extra arm
<http://www.newscientist.com/news/news.jsp?id=ns99994959>, New
Scientist.com
* Possible New Milky Way Spiral Arm
<http://skyandtelescope.com/news/archive/article_1254_1.asp>, Sky
and Telescope.com
* The Milky Way spiral arms and a possible climate connection
<http://www.sciencebits.com/ice-ages>
* Galactic center mosaic via sun-orbiting Spitzer infrared telescope
<http://www.spitzer.caltech.edu/Media/releases/ssc2006-02/ssc2006-02a.shtml>
* Milky Way Plan Views
<http://www.ras.ucalgary.ca/CGPS/where/plan/>, The University of
Calgary Radio Astronomy Laboratory
* Our Growing, Breathing Galaxy
<http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa006&articleID=0000107A-6236-1FD5-A23683414B7F0000>,
Scientific American Magazine (January 2004 Issue)
* Deriving The Shape Of The Galactic Stellar Disc
<http://www.skynightly.com/reports/Deriving_The_Shape_Of_The_Galactic_Stellar_Disc.html>,
SkyNightly (March 17, 2006)
* Digital Sky LLC <http://www.digitalskyllc.com>, Digital Sky's
Milky Way Panorama and other images
* A new view of the Milky Way galaxy
<http://freeimages.reliable-facts.com/earth_and_space/pages/The_Milky_Way.htm>
obtained by the Diffuse Infrared Background Experiment (DIRBE) on
NASA's Cosmic Background Explorer satellite (COBE).
* Image of Milky Way galaxy arms
<http://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/2006/w3/milkyway_ill.jpg>,
Chandra X-ray Observatory Center
* The 1920 Shapley – Curtis Debate on the size of the Milky Way
<http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/diamond_jubilee/debate20.html>
* Milky Way Voyage – India's First & Largest Star Party
<http://www.milkywayvoyage.org>
* Astronomy Picture of the Day:
o Composite image of the Milky Way
<http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap051004.html>
o Milky Way image with highlights
<http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap100625.html>
o Milky Way Illustrated
<http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap050104.html>
o Barred Spiral Milky Way (Illustrated)
<http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap050825.html>
o Radioactive Clouds in the Milky Way
<http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap951029.html>
o Milky Way Molecule Map
<http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap970430.html>
o The Milky Way's Gamma-Ray Halo
<http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap971105.html>
* Moving Milkyway seen from Teneriffe without any lightpollution
<http://foto.star-shine.ch/details.php?image_id=1078>
* Multi-Gigapixel Infrared Milky Way
<http://www.alienearths.org/glimpse/> A zoomable, annotated
version of the Spitzer Space Telescope GLIMPSE survey.
* Animated tour of the Milky Way
<http://alienworlds.glam.ac.uk/milkyWay.html>, University of Glamorgan
[show <#>]
v </wiki/Template:Milky_Way> • d </wiki/Template_talk:Milky_Way> • e
<http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Milky_Way&action=edit>
*The Milky Way*
Location
Milky Way subgroup </wiki/List_of_Milky_Way%27s_satellite_galaxies> →
Local Group </wiki/Local_Group> → Virgo Supercluster
</wiki/Virgo_Supercluster> → Pisces-Cetus Supercluster Complex
</wiki/Pisces-Cetus_Supercluster_Complex> → Observable universe
</wiki/Observable_universe> → Universe </wiki/Universe>
The Milky Way Galaxy </wiki/File:Milky_Way_2005.jpg>
Galactic core
Center of the Milky Way </wiki/Galactic_Center>
Spiral arms
Sagittarius-Carina </wiki/Sagittarius_Arm> *·* Scutum-Crux
</wiki/Scutum-Crux_Arm> *·* Norma-Cygnus </wiki/Cygnus_Arm> *·* Perseus
</wiki/Perseus_Arm> *·* Orion </wiki/Orion_Arm>
Satellite galaxies </wiki/List_of_Milky_Way%27s_satellite_galaxies>
Magellanic Clouds </wiki/Magellanic_Clouds>
Large Magellanic Cloud </wiki/Large_Magellanic_Cloud> *·* Small
Magellanic Cloud </wiki/Small_Magellanic_Cloud> *·* Magellanic Stream
</wiki/Magellanic_Stream> *·* Magellanic Bridge </wiki/Magellanic_Bridge>
Sagittarius Elliptical </wiki/Sagittarius_Dwarf_Elliptical_Galaxy>
Sagittarius Stream
</w/index.php?title=Sagittarius_Stream&action=edit&redlink=1> *·*
Boötes II </wiki/Bo%C3%B6tes_II_(dwarf_galaxy)> *·* Coma Berenices
</wiki/Coma_Berenices_(dwarf_galaxy)> *·* Messier 54
</wiki/Messier_54> *·* Palomar 12 </wiki/Palomar_12> *·* Segue 1
</wiki/Segue_1> *·* Segue 2 </wiki/Segue_2_(dwarf_galaxy)> *·* Terzan 7
</wiki/Terzan_7>
Dwarfs </wiki/Dwarf_galaxy>
Boötes I </wiki/Bo%C3%B6tes_I_(dwarf_galaxy)> *·* Boötes III
</wiki/Bo%C3%B6tes_III_(dwarf_galaxy)> *·* Canes Venatici I
</wiki/Canes_Venatici_I_(dwarf_galaxy)> *·* Canes Venatici II
</wiki/Canes_Venatici_II_(dwarf_galaxy)> *·* Canis Major
</wiki/Canis_Major_Dwarf_Galaxy> *·* Carina </wiki/Carina_Dwarf> *·*
Draco </wiki/Draco_Dwarf> *·* Fornax </wiki/Fornax_Dwarf> *·* Hercules
</wiki/Hercules_(dwarf_galaxy)> *·* Leo I
</wiki/Leo_I_(dwarf_galaxy)> *·* Leo II
</wiki/Leo_II_(dwarf_galaxy)> *·* Leo IV
</wiki/Leo_IV_(dwarf_galaxy)> *·* Leo V </wiki/Leo_V_(dwarf_galaxy)> *·*
Phoenix </wiki/Phoenix_Dwarf_Galaxy> *·* Pisces I
</wiki/Pisces_I_(dwarf_galaxy)> *·* Pisces II
</wiki/Pisces_II_(dwarf_galaxy)> *·* Sculptor
</wiki/Sculptor_Dwarf_Galaxy> *·* Sextans
</wiki/Sextans_Dwarf_Spheroidal> *·* Ursa Major I
</wiki/Ursa_Major_I_Dwarf> *·* Ursa Major II
</wiki/Ursa_Major_II_Dwarf> *·* Ursa Minor </wiki/Ursa_Minor_Dwarf>
Other
Monoceros Ring </wiki/Monoceros_Ring> *·* Virgo Stream
</wiki/Virgo_Stellar_Stream> *·* Koposov I
</w/index.php?title=Koposov_I&action=edit&redlink=1> *·* Koposov II
</w/index.php?title=Koposov_II&action=edit&redlink=1> *·* Segue 3
</wiki/Segue_3> *·* Willman 1 </wiki/Willman_1>
[show <#>]
v </wiki/Template:Earth%27s_location> • d
</wiki/Template_talk:Earth%27s_location> • e
<http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Earth%27s_location&action=edit>
Earth's location in the universe </wiki/Earth%27s_location_in_the_universe>
Earth </wiki/Earth> → Solar System </wiki/Solar_System> → Local
Interstellar Cloud </wiki/Local_Interstellar_Cloud> → Local Bubble
</wiki/Local_Bubble> → Gould Belt </wiki/Gould_Belt> → Orion Arm
</wiki/Orion_Arm> → *Milky Way* → Milky Way subgroup
</wiki/List_of_Milky_Way%27s_satellite_galaxies> → Local Group
</wiki/Local_Group> → Virgo Supercluster </wiki/Virgo_Supercluster> →
Pisces-Cetus Supercluster Complex
</wiki/Pisces-Cetus_Supercluster_Complex> → Observable universe
</wiki/Observable_universe> → Universe </wiki/Universe>
Each arrow should be read as "within" or "part of".
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milky_Way"
Categories </wiki/Special:Categories>: Milky Way Galaxy
</wiki/Category:Milky_Way_Galaxy> | Milky Way Subgroup
</wiki/Category:Milky_Way_Subgroup> | Local Group
</wiki/Category:Local_Group> | Galactic astronomy
</wiki/Category:Galactic_astronomy> | Barred spiral galaxies
</wiki/Category:Barred_spiral_galaxies> | Spiral galaxies
</wiki/Category:Spiral_galaxies>
Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links
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* Mirandés <http://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bie_L%C3%A1tea>
* NÄhuatl
<http://nah.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C4%ABtlalin_%C4%ABcue_(Ilhuicamatiliztli)>
* Nederlands <http://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melkweg_(sterrenstelsel)>
* नेपाली
<http://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BE>
* नेपाल à¤à¤¾à¤·à¤¾
<http://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87>
* 日本語 <http://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%8A%80%E6%B2%B3%E7%B3%BB>
* ‪Norsk (bokmål)‬ <http://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melkeveien>
* ‪Norsk (nynorsk)‬ <http://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mj%C3%B8lkevegen>
* Nouormand
<http://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%27m%C3%AEns_d%27Saint_Jacques>
* Novial <http://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milke-vie>
* Occitan <http://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Via_Lact%C3%A8a>
* پنجابی
<http://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%AF%DB%81_%D8%B4%DB%8C%D8%B1>
* Polski <http://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Droga_Mleczna>
* Português <http://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Via_L%C3%A1ctea>
* Română <http://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calea_Lactee>
* Runa Simi <http://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qullqaquyllur>
* РуÑÑкий
<http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%9F%D1%83%D1%82%D1%8C>
* Саха тыла
<http://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%A1%D0%B8%D0%B8%D0%B3%D1%8D>
* Sicilianu <http://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jolu_di_San_J%C3%A0bbucu>
* Simple English <http://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milky_Way>
* سنڌي
<http://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%8A%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%8A%D9%86_%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%BD_%DA%AA%D9%87%DA%AA%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%86>
* SlovenÄina <http://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxia_(Mlie%C4%8Dna_cesta)>
* SlovenÅ¡Äina <http://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimska_cesta_(galaksija)>
* Soranî / کوردی
<http://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%95%DB%8E%DA%AF%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%B4%DB%8C%D8%B1%DB%8C>
* СрпÑки / Srpski
<http://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%BF%D1%83%D1%82>
* Srpskohrvatski / СрпÑкохрватÑки
<http://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mlije%C4%8Dna_staza>
* Basa Sunda <http://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bima_Sakti>
* Suomi <http://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linnunrata>
* Svenska <http://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vintergatan>
* Tagalog <http://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariwanas>
* தமிழà¯
<http://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%BF>
* Татарча/Tatarça
<http://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B8%D0%B5%D0%BA_%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B7_%D1%8E%D0%BB%D1%8B>
* తెలà±à°—à±
<http://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AA%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B2%E0%B0%AA%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%A4>
* ไทย
<http://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%8A%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%87%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%9C%E0%B8%B7%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%81>
* Türkçe <http://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samanyolu>
* Türkmençe <http://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akma%C3%BDany%C5%88_%C3%9Doly>
* УкраїнÑька
<http://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%A8%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%85>
* اردو
<http://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%AF%DB%81_%D8%B4%DB%8C%D8%B1>
* Uyghurche‎ / ئۇيغۇرچە
<http://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%84%D9%89_%D8%B3%D9%89%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%89%D9%85%DB%90%D8%B3%D9%89>
* Tiếng Việt <http://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ng%C3%A2n_H%C3%A0>
* Võro <http://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsirgurada>
* Walon <http://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voye_Sint-Dj%C3%A5ke>
* West-Vlams <http://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melkweg>
* Winaray <http://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gatasnon_nga_agianan>
* 粵語 <http://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%8A%80%E6%B2%B3>
* Žemaitėška <http://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pauk%C5%A1tiu_Kel%27s>
* ä¸æ–‡ <http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%93%B6%E6%B2%B3%E7%B3%BB>
* This page was last modified on 14 August 2010 at 15:35.
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