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The Larson Research Center
The Reciprocal System of Physical Theory
The Reciprocal System of Physical Theory (RST) is a _new system of
physical theory_ in which the
properties of all physical entities from the photons of radiation, to
subatomic particles, to the atoms of elements, to galactic clusters, is
deduced solely on the basis of the assumption that the universe consists
of nothing but motion, as opposed to the conventional assumption that
the universe consists of matter contained by space and time, as in
quantum theory, or consists of an interaction between matter and
spacetime, as in general relativity. The RST, is the work of _Dewey B.
Larson,_ an American engineer and author, and was
originally published in his book /The Structure of the Physical
Universe/ in 1959, as a preliminary edition, but has more recently been
published in three revised and enlarged volumes: Volume I, /Nothing But
Motion/,
Volume II, /Basic Properties of Matter/,
and Volume III, /The Universe of Motion/.
Motion versus Matter Paradigms
Larson’s RST, and the _reciprocal system theory_
(RSt), which he developed using it, are a
complete departure from existing physical theories, based on the
_traditional system of physical theory_ , such as
general relativity, quantum mechanics, big bang, string theories, etc.
Indeed, the RSt is the first ever general physical theory of the
universe. Larson believed that the failure to recognize that motion is
the most basic physical constituent of the universe has handicapped the
progress of the traditional study of physics, which focuses on forces.
He defended this startling conclusion, by arguing that, since matter can
be converted into non-matter (e.g. energy) and vice-versa, there must be
a common denominator between matter and non-matter. He writes in
/_Quasars and Pulsars_/
(Larson, 1984):
All existing physical theory is based on the assumption that the
universe in which we live is a universe of matter, one in which the
fundamental entities are “elementary units” of matter existing in a
framework provided by space and time…This concept is no longer
tenable, because many ways are now known in which matter can be
transformed into non-matter, and obviously that which can be changed
into something else is not basic. There clearly must be some common
denominator underlying both of these interconvertible entities.
Some critics argue, however, that energy is the fundamental unit upon
which modern physics is founded, not matter. Yet, since these two are
clearly interconvertible, this point is moot. Although, Larson concedes
that the idea that motion is the basic entity of the universe is
certainly not a new one. He observes in /Nothing But Motion/:
The concept of a universe of motion is by no means a new idea. As a
theoretical proposition it has some very obvious merits that have
commended it to thoughtful investigators from the very beginning of
systematic science. Descartes’ idea that matter might be merely a
series of vortexes in the ether is probably the best-known
speculation of this nature, but other scientists and philosophers,
including such prominent figures as Eddington and Hobbes, have
devoted much time to a study of similar possibilities, and this
activity is still continuing in a limited way.
However, while these efforts have never proven fruitful in the past,
Larson blames the previous failures of the concept on the lack of
recognition that the universe “is composed entirely of motion.” Previous
investigators failed, he asserts, because “they did not use this concept
in its pure form. Instead, they invariably employed a hybrid structure,
which retained elements of the previously accepted /matter/ concept”
(emphasis added). For example, he quotes Hobbes’ contention that all
things have “one universal cause, which is motion”, but, he writes, “the
assertion that all things are caused by motion is something quite
different from saying that they are motions.”
Motion and Matter Paradigm
In fact, the latest example of this “hybrid” approach using both matter
and motion assumptions is _string theory_
.
String theorists posit that matter is composed of the motion of
infinitesimal “loops” or “strings;” that is, it posits that vibrations
(motions) exist in various modes, forming different elementary particles
of atoms. According to Edward Witten of Princeton University, the
foremost authority on the subject, string theory is the most promising
line of investigation in the current attempt to resolve the ongoing
conflict that has existed since the discovery of the quantum nature of
matter in the early twentieth century. This problem, which is at the
very heart of _modern physics_
, basically
involves the operation of gravity at the quantum level, in the context
of _general relativity’s_
definition of space-time curvature. It appears, after nearly a century
of effort, that this conflict simply cannot be resolved by recourse to
the concepts of _quantum mechanics_
such as the “uncertainty principle” that has been used so successfully
in quantum field theory to analyze the nuclear model of the atom.
However, string theorists say that because string theory assumes that
the elementary entity of the universe is a motion (a vibration), and not
a point particle as in quantum mechanics, it can be used to overcome the
problem of infinities, which plagues the quantum field theories of
_gravity_
.
The trouble is, according to Witten, this triumph comes at a price.
“Just as quantum mechanics puts a bound on how precisely defined can be
the trajectory of a particle,” says Witten, “so string theory puts a
bound on how precisely one can describe space-time.” As Larson has so
emphatically pointed out, however, motion is space and time. Therefore,
the existence of this bound in string theory is tantamount to a
self-contradiction. Such a condition arises, not because the
motion-based approach is unworkable, but because, as Larson observed,
the theorists have “retained elements of the previously accepted
/matter/ concept.”
Nothing But Motion Paradigm
To appreciate what Larson means when he says that the universe is
composed entirely of motion, one must recall that, in a universe of
matter, a background or setting is necessary in which matter can exist
and interact. It is assumed that space and time provide this setting for
matter, but since motion itself is defined by the ratio of space to
time, in a universe of nothing but motion, space and time cannot be a
background or setting for itself.
However, in a universe of nothing but motion, the definition of motion
stems from the same simple equation of velocity, v = ds/dt, that we are
accustomed to using in physics, but the fact that no properties of an
object appear in this equation is taken to mean that the delta of space
magnitude in the equation, ds, requires no object to define it, just as
the delta of time magnitude in the equation, dt, requires no object to
define it. Instead of depending upon the change of the location of an
object to define an arbitrary “quantum” of space per “quantum” of time,
such as miles per hour, or meters per second, the RST assumes that the
observed universal passage, or progression, of time is one aspect of a
universal motion that necessarily must be accompanied by a universal
“passage,” or progression, of space. The reciprocal relation of these
two aspects of the posited universal motion constitutes the sole meaning
of space and time, in the universe of motion, and, therefore, their
properties are the properties defined by a universal magnitude of
motion, a magnitude that is assumed to be the observed constant speed of
light.
Thus, there is a huge difference between the assumption of a universe of
matter, where the space aspect of the only motion recognized is defined
solely by changes in the locations of matter against a background of
space and time, and the assumption of a universe of motion, where the
space aspect of motion is first defined as the reciprocal aspect of
time, in a universal equation of motion, which actually defines matter
in a given location. Indeed, in the physical universe defined by motion,
radiation, matter, and energy, all have a common denominator, the
discrete units of motion, instances of which are measured in terms of
the ratio in the rates of change of their two, reciprocal, aspects,
space and time. The difference in the necessary consequences that follow
from these two radically different assumptions, as to the nature of
space and time, diverge dramatically.
The Gravity of the Universe of Motion
For example, the RST predicts unequivocally that gravitational
radiation, a requirement of general relativity, does not exist, and that
gravity operates instantaneously without the need for any medium or
continuum, such as the four-dimensional (4D), curved, spacetime
continuum of general relativity, and that it operates without the need
for any process of energy transmission between gravitating bodies. This
is in complete accord with existing observations, although it is at odds
with existing theory, which requires that gravitating mass aggregates
transfer energy by means of radiation at the speed of light.
Physicists, studying the decay of the orbits of certain binary star
systems, believe that they have found indirect evidence of gravitational
radiation, as the orbits of these unusual star systems seem to decay
from the loss of energy due to the hypothetical radiation. Though this
decay has been observed in very rare instances, and the rate is as
predicted by general relativity, to an accuracy of 0.5%, other causes
cannot yet be ruled out, especially since the behavior of these systems
is not well understood. It’s not even firmly established that the
pulsing light from these systems is produced by binary, eclipsing
orbits. Clearly, until new gravitational wave detectors, such as LIGO,
VIRGO, LISA and others, provide direct evidence for the existence of
gravitational radiation, the jury is still out on which theory is
correct in this regard.
The Geometry of the Universe of Motion
The RST posits that the geometry of the universe is flat, which is
consistent with recent observations of the cosmic microwave background
(CMB) radiation. It also is completely consistent with the value of the
cosmological parameter, Omega, which is precisely equal to one. However,
these data are in conflict with traditional big bang cosmology, where
Euclidean (flat) geometry would appear to be highly unlikely. Currently,
the ad hoc theory of cosmic inflation is the method accepted by most
physicists for overcoming this apparent contradiction in the big bang
theory. Nevertheless, it’s important to note that the issue doesn’t even
arise in the RST since matter can’t affect a background or setting that
does not exist in the theory, and the need for an expedient such as the
ad hoc big bang theory to explain the expansion of the universe, and the
need for an ad hoc theory of inflation to explain its rate of expansion
and large-scale structure, are totally superfluous.
The Expansion of the Universe of Motion
Now, with the recent discovery of the accelerating expansion of the
universe, another puzzling and dramatic anomaly is exacerbating the
problems of the cosmologists. The observed acceleration is thought to be
produced by a gravity-like repulsive force. Some quantum physics
theorists think that this force, dubbed “dark energy,” by Michael Turner
of the University of Chicago, might be vacuum energy, represented by the
“cosmological constant” (Λ) in general relativity. Others speculate that
it possibly could be something called “Quintessence.” While this new
force is thought to be similar to gravity, and though it is in conflict
with established theories, a similar outward motion has been an integral
part of Larson’s RST-based theory from its beginning, and is a major
component in his calculations and explanations of both the large-scale
structure of the universe and its atomic and molecular scale structure.
In Larson’s theory, this motion plays a fundamental and crucial role in
the recession of galaxies and galaxy clusters, star and galaxy
formation, and the explosions of stars and galaxies called supernovae,
without the need for the big bang explosion or black holes to explain
these processes. In fact, the new system enabled Larson to predict
galactic scale explosions (quasars) in the 1959 publication, several
years before they were confirmed by observation in the early 1960s.
Interestingly, Einstein himself originally inserted the cosmological
constant term into the Friedmann equation, based on general relativity,
in order to offset the expansion of spacetime that the equation
otherwise predicts, because, at the time, it was not known that the
universe actually is expanding. Later, when Edwin Hubble discovered that
the universe is expanding, just as predicted by relativity theory,
without the offsetting constant, Einstein reportedly kicked himself for
having resorted to this expedient. Though he did it to conform to the
incorrect belief of the time, that the universe is static, if he had
stepped out boldly and predicted the universal expansion before it was
actually observed, it would have been a magnificent triumph of science
(as if he needed another one.) Later, he is reported to have
characterized the insertion of this compensating constant into the
Friedmann equation as the “worst blunder” of his life.
The Consequences in the Observable Universe of Motion
While, it is not known if Larson ever commented on this Einstein story,
it nonetheless serves to graphically illustrate an important difference
that exists between his RST-based theory and existing theories of
matter. As Larson writes (Universe of Motion, 1984):
Stars and galaxies are found in the existing astronomical theories
because they are put into these theories. They are aggregates of
matter, they exert gravitational forces, and they emit radiation,
and so on, in the theoretical picture, because this information was
put into the theories…On the other hand, the Reciprocal System of
theory…is independent of existing scientific thought. Stars and
galaxies composed of matter appear in this theory, but neither these
objects nor the matter itself are put into the theory; they are
consequences of the theory: results that necessarily follow from the
only things that are put into the theory, the postulated properties
of space and time.
The reason Larson can make this claim has to do with the unusual nature
of the RST-based theory itself. Unlike existing physical theory that
Richard Feynman characterized as “a multitude of different parts and
pieces that do not fit together very well,” the RSt, Larson says,
Has no empirical content. It bases all of its conclusions solely on
the postulated properties of space and time. The theoretical
deductions from these postulates provide for the existence of the
various physical entities and phenomena-matter, radiation,
electrical and magnetic phenomena, gravitation, etc.-as well as
establishing the relations between these entities. Since all
conclusions are derived from the same premises, the theoretical
system is a completely integrated structure, contrasting sharply
with the currently accepted body of physical theory.
In other words, the RST-based RSt is a general theory of nature,
unprecedented in the history of science, which defines a complete
theoretical universe. The test of the theory resides in the comparison
of its consequences with the observed physical universe. A short list of
the major consequences of the RSt that have been developed so far
follows below:
*_Scalar motion._* The concept of motion in the RSt is
defined by the RST’s fundamental postulates from which everything in the
RSt is deduced. This new definition of motion, and the postulates of
space and time that make it possible, constitute a new system of
physical theory, the RST. Scalar motion is a super set of the ordinary
vectorial motion with which we are familiar, and has unusual properties
that sometimes prevent it from being recognized as motion in the limited
representation of the conventional reference system. However, it is the
basic constituent of the theoretical universe from which all things derive.
*_Radiating photons_
.* Beginning with the
updated definition of motion, the RSt derives the existence of
theoretical entities that have the properties of electromagnetic
radiation, photons, which propagate outward from their source at the
speed of light in all directions.
*_Subatomic entities_ .*
Continuing the development by logically extending the initial units of
motion, or photons, into combinations of units, additional theoretical
entities emerge from the theory that correspond to more advanced
physical entities including electrons, positrons, neutrinos, protons,
and neutrons. Properties of these entities, their mass, charge, and
inertia, also begin to manifest themselves as a result of certain
configurations of these motion combinations.
*_Non-nuclear atomic model_
.*
Compounding these motion combinations further produces a theoretical
entity with the properties of the corresponding physical atom of
hydrogen. Moreover, there is no electron - proton/neutron pair present
in the RSt model of the atom, as there is in the nuclear model, but only
a total combination of units of motion built up in succession from
photon, to electron, to neutron, to proton, to atom, etc. Hence, there
is no need for wave equations and the principle of uncertainty to
explain the properties of electrons, protons, etc, in atoms, because, in
the RSt, they don’t exist as such within the atom, as its constituent parts.
*_The periodic order of the elements_ .* As the combination of
motions continues to build, the RSt accurately derives the elements in
correct order without employing the concept of electrons orbiting an
atomic nucleus, and predicts that the maximum number of elements in the
periodic table is 117. With this insight from the RSt, it is possible to
construct a /theoretically/ derived, alternate, representation of the
periodic table of elements called the Wheel of Motion that more
clearly illustrates its periodic nature and the theoretical relations of
its series of elements. This is in stark contrast to the predictions of
quantum mechanics which cannot be reconciled with the periodic order of
the elements, even in the approximate case, when only the principle
quantum number is used. Solving the Schrödinger equation for heavier
elements has never been accomplished.
*_Physical constants_ .*
In the RSt, one of the greatest mysteries of physics, the origin of the
so-called “fundamental constants,” is finally explained and the
constants are shown to reduce to unity and disappear when all quantities
are expressed in the natural units of motion of the theory.
*_The basic properties of matter_
.* The RSt predicts four
states of matter: the gaseous state, the vapor state, the liquid state
and the solid state. Based on the properties that define these states,
Larson makes theoretical predictions for a large number of properties of
a range of chemical species, including atomic mass, viscosity,
interatomic distance, compressibility and heat capacity. These values
are calculated from simple, closed-form, analytic formulas, a vast
improvement on the complex calculations required to make theoretical
predictions under quantum mechanics.
*_The source of electric charge, electric current, electromagnetism and
magnetostatics_
.*
Special cases of the motion, which constitutes matter in the RSt,
produce forces that are identified with electric charge and magnetism.
The relationship between these motions produces electromagnetic
interaction phenomena including induction of electrical current and
production of magnetic fields, eliminating the inherent contradictions
in existing theory, wherein the electron is assigned two mutually
exclusive roles in the electrical theory of the structure of matter, and
in the theory of electric current. It also shows clearly why magnetic
monopoles cannot exist.
*_The effect of high-speed in the equations of motion_
.* For example,
the precession of the perihelion of the planet Mercury. This problem was
first solved using Einstein’s equations of general relativity, which
assumes relative values of space-time in the equations of motion, as
opposed to Newton’s assumption that space and time should be treated as
absolute concepts in the equations of motion. Larson, in the RSt, also
assumes absolute values of space and time, but goes beyond Newton in the
definition of these crucial concepts. Using these definitions, _K.V.K.
Nehru_
produced a paper describing the orbital motion of high-speed planets.
The result he found from the RSt was precisely the same as that from
relativity. Hence, the RSt is fully in agreement with accurate
measurements of Mercury’s orbit, but without sacrificing the concepts of
absolute space and time, as relativity theory is required to do.
*_Radioactive decay of elements_
.*
As combinations of motion are compounded in the heavier elements,
instabilities arise resulting in the spontaneous ejection of some of the
combined motions constituting mass (alpha decay) in some cases, and the
ejection of less complex combinations in others (beta decay.)
*_The energy production process of stars_
.*
In the RSt, the energy produced in the stars is not produced by nuclear
fusion, as in current theory. Instead it is the result of a much more
powerful ionization process that involves the complete transformation of
matter into energy, yielding magnitudes of energy capable of accounting
for the most energetic events observed today, when these are adjusted
down in accordance with certain theoretical considerations.
*_Speeds faster than the speed of light_
.* Although the
RSt agrees with current theory that speeds faster than the speed of
light are not possible in space, it does not agree that this limit is an
absolute limit of the universe in general. In fact, many of the
perplexing astronomical phenomena, which, in a universe of matter, are
difficult to explain, are shown to be phenomena resulting in speeds that
are in the range of two and three times faster than the speed of light
in the universe of motion.
The Consequences Beyond the Observable Universe of Motion
As the above list demonstrates, the scope of the RSt is unprecedented.
No previous physical theory in the history of the world is of such a
general nature as this, enabling it to cover the full range of phenomena
accessible to observation. However, the consequences of the RST
postulates don’t stop with the observable universe, but also extend into
the observationally unknown and inaccessible regions of the universe. To
understand how these consequences develop, it is necessary to understand
the nature and the details of the definition of motion in the RST from
which all things in the theory based on it are derived.
Understanding this concept of motion enables one to see that motion in
time is as natural and as comprehensible as motion in space. Motion in
time is the reciprocal of motion in space. Time is three-dimensional and
space is scalar in this motion, which is the inverse of motion in space,
where space is three-dimensional and time is scalar. Thus, an entirely
new sector of the universe is suddenly brought into view that consists
of an inverse relationship of time and space. In this inverse sector,
which Larson calls the Cosmic sector, physical phenomena such as
radiation, matter, gravitation, etc., act, react and interact just as
they do in our sector, which Larson calls the Material sector of the
universe.
However, because of the inverse relation of time and space, the two
sectors are mutually inaccessible from each other. Therefore, only
processes where the boundaries of the two sectors exist can be examined
directly. These are the regions of the very small and the very fast. In
the region of the very small, the boundary exists at the limit of one
unit of space, or one unit of time (motion, in the RST, is postulated as
existing in discrete units.) This limit is called the unit boundary and
on the velocity (space) side of it, motion in space is possible, but
beyond it, on the energy (time) side of the equation, motion in space is
not possible, but only motion in time. Thus, when motion is examined
beyond the unit boundary, its nature is radically altered and seems to
possess strange properties. Phenomena in this regime are known as
quantum phenomena and are termed non-local phenomena by conventional
physicists.
In the region of the very fast, the boundary exist at the limit of unit
speed, the speed of light. This limit is called unit speed, and on the
velocity (space) side of it, motion in space is possible, but beyond it,
on the energy (time) side of the equation, motion in space is not
possible, but only motion in time. Thus, when motion is examined beyond
the unit speed boundary, its nature is radically altered and seems to
possess strange properties. Phenomena in this regime are unrecognized by
conventional physicists as connected with motion in time, but are noted
as strange and bizarre astronomical phenomena.
Atomic Scale (Unit Boundary) Phenomena
Since motion at these two boundaries inverts, that is, the relation of
the space and time terms in the equation are altered, one should expect
that the properties of the associated physical entities are altered as
well. One of the most important properties of matter is mass. In the
RST-based RSt, mass is the measure of the inward motion of matter and is
the motion that gives rise to phenomenon of gravity and inertia. Thus,
at the unit boundary, the inversion of the motion, from motion in space,
to motion in time, occurs on the small scale, the atomic, or molecular,
scale of matter, where the distance between atoms, or molecules of
atoms, is reduced to one unit of space or time.
When the inversion takes place, upon crossing the unit boundary, the
direction of the inward motion of the atom or atoms towards other atoms,
which constitutes the mass of the atom, inverts to outward, and the
opposing outward motion of the Material sector (motion causing the
expansion of the Material sector) inverts to the inward direction. Like
the coupling mechanism of train cars, this inversion of the direction of
the two principle motions involved binds the atoms together. These bonds
can be varied and complex depending upon the nature of the atoms or
molecules of atoms involved and the environment in which the encounter
takes place, but in general the bonding results in a solid, liquid,
vapor, or gaseous, state (and admixtures of the same) of the matter.
Large Scale (Unit Speed Boundary) Phenomena
On the other hand, at the unit speed boundary, the inversion of the
motion, from motion in space, to motion in time, occurs on the large
scale, the stellar, or galactic, scale of matter, where the speed of
great aggregates of matter is increased to unit speed by means of
explosions of unimaginable power. When the inversion takes place, upon
crossing the unit speed boundary (the speed of light), the direction of
the outward motion of the aggregate in space, inverts to inward, and the
opposing motion of gravity inverts to the outward direction. These
motions, which are now motion in time, thus reverse roles, and what was
formerly an inward gravitational motion, is now an outward motion in the
Cosmic sector (motion causing the expansion of the Cosmic sector,) and
the motion that was the outward speed of the aggregate in space, now
becomes the inward gravitational motion in time. The effect on the
matter is enormous, essentially decomposing it from the perspective of
the Material sector, where it was formerly concentrated, and
concentrating it in the Cosmic sector, where it was formerly decomposed
from the perspective of the Cosmic sector. These effects can be varied
and complex depending upon the nature of the matter aggregates involved
and the environment in which the high speeds are reached, but in
general, the inversion of space and time that results produces white
dwarfs, pulsars, quasars, etc., with their strange and bizarre
properties that are so difficult to reconcile in current theories.
As the high-speed aggregates of matter exit one sector of the universe,
they enter the inverse sector as high-speed, dispersed atoms of matter,
known as cosmic rays. Subject to the processes of the gravity and the
expansion motions of their new environment, they once again begin to
aggregate and concentrate, forming matter, stars, galaxies, and clusters
of galaxies, over billions of years, until, eventually, they are
propelled in huge concentrations over the boundary once again as the
process cycles through the eternities. Thus, like a phoenix rising from
its own ashes, we see a universe of ever expanding proportions, and yet
one which will never grow old and die, because it is constantly being
renewed. Truly, a universe of motion.
See also: _Tutorial Introduction to the RST_ — _Scalar Motion_ —
_Radiation_ — _Matter_ — _Dewey B. Larson_ — _Nothing But Motion_ —
_Basic Properties of Matter_ — _The Universe of Motion_
Copyright © 2006-2008, The Larson Research Center. All rights reserved.