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Lightning is a plasma and creates a powerful electromagnetic pulse across
a wide range of frequencies as it releases the charge build up in a storm
cloud. Th underheads may be several thousand cubic kilometers in extent,
yet all of their stored electrical energy travels down a discharge channel
no wider than a man' s waist. The z-pinch effect inside a lightning bolt's
vortex causes rapid ionization, as well as particle acceleration fast
enough to generate gamma rays.
-- MOTD jun 10 2010
-- Juergens:
It is no secret that terrestrial lightning strokes to rocky surfaces,
while sometimes fusing materials to form glassy fulgurites, also magnetize
surrounding rocks without melting them.
fn117 Moon and Mars..
<P> 117. Cobine (Gaseous Conductors), discussing the "Low-pressure Arc
Column" (which is the probable analog of an interplanetary discharge
burning in a very thin gas, such as might be drawn into a Mars-Moon gap),
points out that ionization is most intense at the axis of the column and
that the electric potential is also highest at the axis (with respect to
other points on any cross section of the column). As a result, positive
ions formed in the plasma of the column "are being continually lost to the
walls of the tube" (p. 319). If we liken the general surface of the Moon
to discharge-tube walls (see note 102), we can imagine a Mars- Moon arc
column spraying positive ions across vast regions of the lunar surface,
which, under the present postulates, would be of lower potential, thus
attracting positive ions to itself.
<P> 126. J>M> Somerville (The Electric Arc, 1960) comments: "There is
usually
a considerable contraction [of the arc column] at the ANODE and the anode
spot sometimes moves over the anode surface. . .[and] the motion may be
discontinuous, a series of spots being left on the anode instead of a
continuous trace."
Science 12 May 1972: Vol. 176. no. 4035, pp. 671 - 673
Lunar Glass: Interferometric Evidence for Low-Temperature Shock
S. Tolansky , Royal Holloway College, Egham, Surrey, England
Glass objects in the fines from the Apollo 11 and Apollo 12 missions are
shown, by two-beam reflection interferometry, to have been subject to
shock at temperatures below the melting or softening point of the glass.
Possible causes for the glass fragmentation are discussed.
juergens:
<P> On the other hand, if Aristarchus and Tycho were produced by electric
discharges, their clean floors would be just about what one would expect.
The abilities of discharges to produce melting on cathode surfaces and
generally to "clean up" those surfaces have been remarked upon since the
earliest experiments with electric discharges
juergens 2:
(of the process at Tycho)..
<LI> -Instantly, breakdown streamers began to propagate in all
directions, generating electrons "the hard way." As the intense fields at
the streamer tips passed over susceptible geologic formations, electrons
were exploded from the ground, and on-ray craterlets were born; the fines
from each little explosion were carried along for some distance and
deposited in an ---- elliptical patch ---- by the "wind" force of the
plasma streamer.
<P> Typical anode effects of a destructive kind, leaving detectable
markings after discharges are extinguished, include intense heating by
streams of high-energy electrons [J. D. Cobine, "Gaseous Conductors-
Theory and Engineering Applications" (1958)], and erosion due to the
leaching away of surface matter in the form of positive ions [J. J. and G.
P. Thomson "Conduction of Electricity through Gases Vol. 11" (1969)], as
well as to the bulk extraction and removal of materials" [E. J. Hellund
"The Plasma State" (1961)].
<P> It is instructive, too, to take notice of the thermal effects produced
on Earth by mere lightning bolts. One such effect is the formation of
fulgurites -- glassy objects, usually tubular and often branching, formed
in dry ground (such as dune sands) as concentrated streams of electrons
funnel into the Earth from the lower ends of lightning channels (119).
Another is the vaporization of surface materials, as shown by their
appearance as emission features in lightning spectrograms (120). And of
course the fire ignition capabilities of lightning are well-known and too
numerous to list. It remains to be added that in most cloud-to-ground
lightning strikes the Earth's surface is the ANODE.
74. J. J. and G. P. Thomson (Conduction of Electricity through
Cases Vol. 11 11933, New York: Dover Publications, 19691, p. 458)
point out that cathode disintegration through the expulsion
(sputtering) of atoms of metal was first reported by Plucker in
1858. The cleanup process includes, in addition to the sputtering
of cathode metals (an effect long in use technically in the
production of semi-transparent metallic films on glass for optical
purposes), the generation of considerable fine dust and of
cathode-material vapors, which condense and produce fallout beyond
the confines of the immediate cathode "spot" or "crater" in which a
discharge burns. This last effect suggests a likely source for the
Moon's ubiquitous glassy- sphere soil particles.
copernicus crater (wiki):
The circular rim has a discernible hexagonal form, with a terraced inner
wall and a 30 km wide, sloping rampart that descends nearly a kilometer
to the surrounding mare. There are three distinct terraces visible, and
arc-shaped landslide s due to slumping of the inner wall as the crater
debris subsided.
The crater rays spread as far as 800 kilometers across the surrounding
mare, overlying rays from the craters Aristarchus and Kepler. The rays
are less distinct than the long, linear rays extending from Tycho,
instead forming a nebulous pattern with plumy markings. In multiple
locations the rays lie at glancing angles, instead of forming a true
radial dispersal. An extensive pattern of smaller secondary craters can
also be observed surrounding Copernicus, a detail that was depicted in a
map by Giovanni Cassini in 1680. Some of these secondary craters form
sinuous chains in the ejecta.
Firestone at George site - dryas/firestonebayevent
iron-rich grains traveling at an estimated 10,000
kilometers per second.
From: BobK
http://www.sciencenews.org/20000325/fob1.asp
[no access . . .]
Fullerenes are hollow, spherical molecules made of pure carbon (SN:
6/27/98, p. 406). The most famous member of the family is
buckminsterfullerene, consisting of 60 carbon atoms arranged in the
pattern of a soccer ball. On Earth, fullerenes can be made in the lab and
have been found in rocks seared by lightning strikes.
Luann Becker of the University of Hawaii in Honolulu and her group
isolated fullerenes from the Allende and Murchison meteorites. Both are
carbonaceous chondrites, a rare meteorite type that contains much organic
material. The researchers found, trapped inside the fullerenes, noble
gases whose isotopic profile did not match those of gases on Earth.
The researchers also isolated fullerenes from a clay sediment layer
deposited during an asteroid impact 65 million years ago. Some scientists
believe that this collision, marking the so-called Cretaceous-Tertiary
(KT) boundary, led to the demise of the dinosaurs (SN: 3/1/97, p. S20).
The sediment fullerenes also contain noble gases with unusual isotope
ratios.
[. . .]
Then in 1990, Wolfgang Krätschmer and Konstantinos Fostiropoulos at the
Max Planck Institute for Nuclear Physics in Heidelberg, Germany, and
Donald Huffman and Lowell Lamb at the University of Arizona in Tucson
succeeded in making buckminsterfullerene in visible quantities for the
first time, not in an elaborate cat's cradle of lasers and cluster beams,
but in a simple vacuum chamber with an electric arc between two carbon
rods. By another unusual interdisciplinary twist of this tale, these
people were physicists who, while investigating the light-scattering
properties of carbon smoke, found themselves making in a test-tube the
molecule that every chemist wanted.
Where the graphite rods came into contact, an electric current of around
100 amps created a carbon vapor. Upon condensation on special surfaces or
even on the walls of the vacuum chamber Krätschmer and Huffman found that
under certain conditions the soot contained a small percentage of
carbon-60. This could be purified by careful vaporization and
recondensation or by dissolving the soot in a solvent and extracting the
desired constituent. The beauty of the process was anybody could do it.
from
http://www.nanocentral.com/nanosci/materials/carbonchem/Aldersey_TRC60.html
restatement of the nanodiamond paper:
The latest study is from Science, and is a follow up on criticism leveled
at an earlier paper published in PNAS. From the Science paper:
We report abundant nanodiamonds in sediments dating to 12.9 ... thousand
calendar years before the present at multiple locations across North
America. [there are two types of] diamonds ... in this boundary layer but
not above or below that interval. Cubic diamonds form under high
temperature-pressure regimes, and n-diamonds also require extraordinary
conditions, well outside the range of Earth's typical surficial processes
but common to cosmic impacts. ....
These diamonds provide strong evidence for Earth's collision with a rare
swarm of carbonaceous chondrites or comets at the onset of the Younger
Dryas cool interval, producing multiple airbursts and possible surface
impacts, with severe repercussions for plants, animals, and humans in
North America.
D. J. Kennett, J. P. Kennett, A. West, C. Mercer, S. S. Q. Hee, L. Bement,
T. E. Bunch, M. Sellers, W. S. Wolbach (2009). Nanodiamonds in the Younger
Dryas Boundary Sediment Layer Science, 323 (5910), 94-94 DOI:
10.1126/science.1162819
/*"Our research indicates that the entire Great Lakes region (and beyond)
was subjected to particle bombardment and a catastrophic nuclear
irradiation*/ that produced secondary thermal neutrons from cosmic ray
interactions. The neutrons produced unusually large quantities of 239Pu
and substantially altered the natural uranium abundance ratios (235U/238U)
in artifacts and in other exposed materials including cherts, sediments,
and the entire landscape. These neutrons necessarily transmuted residual
nitrogen (14N) in the dated charcoals to radiocarbon, thus explaining
anomalous dates."
-- From "Terrestrial Evidence of a Nuclear Catastrophe in Paleoindian
Times" Dr. Richard Firestone and Mr. William Topping
PR:
They also found evidence of the supernova explosions initial shockwave:
34,000-year-old mammoth tusks that are peppered with tiny impact craters
apparently produced by iron-rich grains traveling at an estimated 10,000
kilometers per second. These grains may have been emitted from a
supernova that exploded roughly 7,000 years earlier and about 250 light
years from Earth. (Firestone and West)
(more) In support of the comet impact, Firestone and West found magnetic
metal spherules in the sediment of nine 13,000-year-old Clovis sites in
Michigan, Canada, Arizona, New Mexico and the Carolinas. Low-density
carbon spherules, charcoal, and excess radioactivity were also found at
these sites.
more: Analysis of the magnetic particles by Prompt Gamma Activation
Analysis at the Budapest Reactor and by Neutron Activation Analysis at
Canada's Becquerel Laboratories revealed that they are rich in titanium,
iron, manganese, vanadium, rare earth elements, thorium, and uranium. This
composition is very similar to lunar igneous rocks, called KREEP, which
were discovered on the moon by the Apollo astronauts, and have also been
found in lunar meteorites that fell to Earth in the Middle East an
estimated 10,000 years ago.
more: Much higher energies are needed: x-ray analysis determined that the
impact depths are consistent with grains traveling at speeds approaching
10,000 kilometers per second.
"Its surprising that it works out so well," says Firestone. -- Press
Release, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, "Supernova Explosion May
Have Caused Mammoth Extinction," September 23, 2005
There is an inverse relationship between micrometeorite densities in
artifacts and related Paleo-Indian radiocarbon dates. At Gainey and
Leavitt where the radiocarbon dates obtained were virtually identical at ~
2880 bp rcy the particle density was ~ 70,000 cm^2. Particle densities at
other sites are lower by latitude/longitude, with older associated
radiocarbon dates. At Taylor, for instance, the density of micrometeorites
was ~ 40,000 cm^2. This implies particles were deposited in one shockwave
of great intensity, with necessary associated neutrons. The most likely
culprit is the sun, but this may be incorrect. Independent testing to
confirm depleted 235U in the micrometeorites had been considered to "rule
out" a supernova since the debris ought to contain "enriched" 235U
(assuming uranium actually is formed in supernovae), but now has been
discarded because the debris itself would have been subjected to neutrons,
and hence depleted "then." Firestone may be correct in hypothesizing a
supernova, and there are other possibilities as well.
-- William Topping, response
more: Second, in a shockwave the relative densities of atmospheric
compression into in a "funnel" would have involved entirely different
nuclear interactions by latitude/longitude/height including production of
nitrogen oxides, and the most probable (essentially, "definite" because of
the 14C + n-t,f reactions) associated destruction of 14C, which itself
decays back into 14N (t1/2 = ~ 5730 years). Literature on atmospheric
nuclear weapons testing makes it clear (5; see 1.36, 2.131, 2.132, 2.140
and 2.150 in particular). Neutron/gamma response to varying degrees of
atmospheric density in a shockwave are complicated and symbiotic, and in
all fairness to everyone probably "never" calculable in mathematical terms
since the event (main) is deep in time, and environmental conditions then
so different from modern.
THE MAMMOTH TRUMPET (March 2001)*
*TERRESTRIAL EVIDENCE OF A NUCLEAR CATASTROPHE IN PALEOINDIAN TIMES *
Firestone, Topping - March 2001
At Gainey, large
quantities of micrometeorite-like particles appear to be concentrated
near the boundary between the B and C sediment horizons. They can be
separated with a magnet and are identified by the presence of chondrules
and by visual evidence of sintering and partial melting. These
particles, dissimilar to common magnetites, are found in association
with a high frequency of "spherules."
Track and particle data in Table 1 suggest that the total track volume
(density times depth) is highest at the Michigan, Illinois, and Indiana
sites and decreases in all directions from this region, consistent with
a widespread catastrophe concentrated over the Great Lakes region. The
nearly vertical direction of the tracks left by particle impacts at most
sites suggests they came from a distant source.
water:
When an ionic or polar compound enters water, it is surrounded by water
molecules (Hydration). The relatively small size of water molecules
typically allows many water molecules to surround one molecule of solute.
The partially negative dipole ends of the water are attracted to
positively charged components of the solute, and vice versa for the
positive dipole ends. -- wiki on water properties