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Introduction

During the course of the past several decades, a wealth of evidence
has come to light supporting Velikovsky's thesis that the planets have
only recently settled into their current orbits. To date, the
testimony of the ancients themselves has provided the most telling
evidence. Ancient rock art, archaeoastronomical traditions surrounding
the respective planets, and mythical traditions associated with the
various planetary deities, each offer dramatic proof of this thesis.

Critics, however, continue to object that claims as extraordinary as
those of Velikovsky and the Saturnists require extraordinary evidence
to be believed. With this catch phrase they dismiss at once all
testimony from ancient mythology as being unduly reliant upon
interpretation and, hence, ultimately subjective in nature. Evidence
from ancient art is similarly dismissed as the product of creative
imagination. Archaeoastronmical traditions, if they are admitted into
court at all, are deemed inconclusive.

It is with these criticisms in mind that I set out to find a source of
evidence that is more objective in nature and less susceptible to _ad
hoc_ interpretations, whether on the part of the critic _or_
catastrophist researcher. This new evidence - descriptions of the
ancient sun-god's epiphany and its attendance by various planets -
bears all the earmarks of being objective in nature. Depictions of the
daily cycle of the sun can be found amongst the ancient art and
literature from the Old and New World alike. Our discussion here will
focus upon the literature and art from the ancient Near East and,
while necessarily technical in nature, it is hoped that it will serve
as a launching pad for a radical reinterpretation of ancient cosmology
in general.

Simply stated, it can be shown that descriptions of the celestial
whereabouts and stereotypical behavior of the ancient sun-god (Utu,
Shamash), Venus (Inanna, Ishtar), and Mars (Nergal), show the
respective celestial bodies in positions which are impossible given
the current arrangement of the Solar System. Such anomalies have long
posed problems of interpretation for translators of the ancient texts,
the latter of whom frequently resort to "emending" or "correcting" the
texts in question in order to bring them into accord with current
astronomical conditions. Not one of the thousands of scholars who have
analyzed these texts, to the best of my knowledge, has ever seriously
entertained the possibility that the extraordinary and seemingly
impossible descriptions of the respective celestial bodies actually
commemorated an extraordinary -and now lost- celestial landscape.

The Mountain of Sunrise

Among the most enduring types of art from the ancient Near East are
cylinder seals, engravings cut into various types of stone which
originally served as signs of property ownership. Deriving from
earlier stamp seals, cylinder seals first appeared in the fourth
millennium BCE and remained popular for some three thousand years.
[1][01]

It is commonly acknowledged that certain scenes on these cylinder
seals represent mythological tales surrounding the various gods.
[2][02] Various aspects of Sumero-Akkadian cosmology would also appear
to be illustrated. For example, a common motif on Akkadian cylinder
seals shows the ancient sun-god Shamash rising from the twin peaks of
a mountain [3][03] The god is typically represented in anthropomorphic
form as either emerging from, or standing upon, the mountain.

Early hymns to the ancient sun-god likewise invoke him in conjunction
with a towering mountain. "Samas, when you appear from the great
mountain, from the great mountain, the mountain of the
springs...there, where heaven and earth meet, from the ground of
heaven you appear." [4][04]

Why the ancient peoples of Mesopotamia would depict their ancient
sun-god as rising from a mountain has remained a matter for debate
among scholars, as mountains are not present in Mesopotamia proper
which occupies the alluvial plains around the rivers Euphrates and
Tigris (there are mountains to the North and East). [5][05] Frankfort,
in a discussion of Mesopotamian art, observed that the
mountain-setting was customary: "[The mountain] is in Mesopotamia the
'religious landscape' par excellence, as the reed marsh is of Egypt
and the mound of Golgotha in Christianity, and therefore the normal
setting for the epiphany of the god." [6][06] Why this should be the
case, however, Frankfort left unaddressed.

Another common motif on Akkadian cylinder seals depicts the sun-god as
appearing from behind celestial gates or doors (see figure two), the
gates themselves being placed in close proximity to the two-peaked
mountain. This situation is also reflected in ancient literature
commemorating Shamash's celestial epiphany in which he is lauded as
the opener of "the doors of pure heaven." [7][07] A hymn incorporating
the same motif has the following:

" Samas, you lit up at the base of heaven. You opened the bolt of pure
heaven. You opened the door of heaven." [8][08]

That there are no landmarks in the immediate vicinity of the sun which
would provide a ready objective reference for gates or doors is
apparent to all. Consequently, scholars have considered the gates of
the ancient sun-god to be a figment of the imagination of ancient
poets: "No class of cylinders better illustrates the poetic
imagination of a primitive people than those which give us the
representation of the Sun-god Shamash emerging from the gates of
morning and rising over the Eastern Mountains." [9][09]

Venus

Ancient hymns celebrating the planet Venus -or the goddess identified
with that planet, Inanna/Ishtar- describe it as being in close
proximitiy to the ancient sun-god. Thus Inanna is repeatedly brought
into connection with the site where the sun-god rises ( _ki-utu-e-a_).
In the ancient hymn known as _Inanna's Descent to the Underworld_, for
example, the goddess is introduced as follows: "I am Inanna of the
place where the sun makes his rising." [10][10] Modern scholars, quite
naturally, have sought to interpret such passages in terms of Venus'
current role as Morning/Evening Star. [11][11] According to this view,
the phrase _ki-utu-e-a_ marks a metaphorical expression for the east
or eastern horizon. [12][12]

Upon closer examination, however, it can be shown that this phrase has
reference to a specific site in heaven -the aforementioned mountain of
sunrise, in fact. Thus Sjöberg points out that the phrase _ki-
[d]utu-e-a_ marks a semantic parallel to _kur- [d]utu-e-a_, "the
mountain where the sun rises." [13][13] If Sjöberg is right, as there
is every reason to believe, one would expect to find the Venus goddess
described as associated with the mountain of sunrise.

Various hymns describe Venus/Inanna as intimately associated with a
celestial mountain. Texts from archaic Uruk invoke Inanna-kur, "Inanna
of (or from) the _Kur_," the latter word signifying "mountain."
[14][14] The epic _Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta_ describes Inanna
as the "great lady of heaven" who "dwells on the top of the mountain."
[15][15] The _Exaltation of Inanna_ reports that the goddess "resides
in the mountain." [16][16] Yet another hymn reports that Inanna "fills
the mountain." [17][17] In the hymn _Inanna and Ebih_, the mountain is
described as "the pure place of your [Inanna's] birth." [18][18]

Early hymns to the planet-goddess place her various adventures on or
about this mountain, alternatively described as _kur_ or _kur-suba_,
"the pure shining mountain." In the _Exhaltation of Inanna_, for
example, Inanna is compared to a "flood descending from its mountain [
_kur_]." [19][19] A related passage states that the mountain flood (
_kur-a-ma-ru_) lies at her feet. [20][20] Inanna is elsewhere
described as a dragon raining fire or venom across the mountain/land:
"Like a dragon you have deposited venom on the land [ _kur-ra_]."
[21][21]

The _kur_ also figures in various epithets celebrating Inanna's
supreme status: _Nin-kur-kur-a_ -"Lady of all the lands." [22][22] The
epithet _kur-ra diri-ga_ signifies "she who dominates the _kur_."
[23][23] Yet another epithet - _Kur-gul-gul_, "Devastatrix of the
lands"- celebrates Inanna's role in the destruction of this celestial
mountain. [24][24]

Venus' intimate association with a celestial mountain would also
appear to be represented in ancient art. Consider the seal illustrated
in figure three
. The scene depicted here drew the following commentary from Amiet:

"The wings which she wears on rare occasions and the stars which
sometimes top the weapons emerging from her shoulders confirm her
celestial character... The image of the new goddess corresponds
exactly to what is known of the Ishtar of the Semites,
personification of the planet Venus." [25][25]

The wealth of evidence linking Inanna/Venus to a celestial mountain
naturally leads to the question: How are we to understand such
traditions? A leading scholar expressed the following opinion:

"The problem of what the _kur_ means in the above mentioned name
[Inanna-kur], remains, for the time being, unsolved. It seems that
_kur_ 'mountain' in connection with the goddess indicates the
mythological mountain, the place of her birth and her appearance."
[26][26]

Samuel Kramer offered the following commentary on the mysterious
_kur_:

"One of the most difficult groups of concepts to identify and
interpret is that represented by the Sumerian word _kur_. That one
of its primary meanings is 'mountain' is attested by the fact that
the sign used for it is actually a pictograph representing a
mountain. From the meaning 'mountain' developed that of 'foreign
land,' since the mountainous countries bordering Sumer were a
constant menace to its people. _Kur_ also came to mean 'land' in
general; Sumer itself is described as _kur-gal_, 'great land'."

"But in addition the Sumerian word _kur_ represented a cosmic
concept. Thus it seems to be identical to a certain extent with the
Sumerian _ki-gal_, 'great below.' Like _ki-gal_, therefore, it has
the meaning 'nether world'; indeed, in such poems as 'Inanna's
Descent to the Nether World,' and 'Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the
Nether World,' the word regularly used for 'nether world' is _kur_.

_Kur_ thus cosmically conceived is the empty space between the
earth's crust and primeval sea." [27][27]

Kramer's celestial mountain is thus conceived as a theoretical
construct made of nothing but thin air. It is necessary to ask,
however, whether such a metaphor could have served as the inspiration
for the traditions surrounding Shamash and Inanna, traditions which
could, after all, be paralleled by others throughout the ancient
world? Here we find ourselves in complete agreement with the opinion
of Henri Frankfort, who wrote as follows of the objective nature of
ancient art: "Divine smbols are... based on something more definite
than a poetical simile." [28][28]

Confronted with the apparent anomaly whereby both the ancient sun-god
and Venus co-habit atop a mythical mountain, conventional scholars
have little recourse but to fall back upon the seemingly all purpose
explanation of the Sun/Venus rising in the east over some ill-defined
mountain range. Szarzynska's opinion may be taken as typical in this
regard: "This meaning of the _kur_ is connected in all probability
with the mountains in the East of the Sumer-country, upon which the
sun rises and the planet Venus appears." [29][29]

Such an interpretation, while convenient, will not stand up to
scrutiny. That the mountain of sunrise is not simply a metaphor for
the eastern horizon or a terrestrial mountain to the east of Sumer is
readily demonstrable. For one thing, the mountain of sun-rise also
doubles as the mountain of sunset. This peculiar aspect of ancient
cosmology is apparent in the following passage from the _Gilgamesh
Epic_:

"The name of the mountain is Mashu... Which everyday keeps watch
over the rising and setting of the sun, Whose peaks reach as high
as the 'banks of heaven', And whose breast reaches down to the
underworld." [30][30]

Under the current arrangement of the solar system, needless to say, it
is not possible for the Sun to both rise and set over the same
terrestrial mountain. Consequently, some scholars have sought to find
fault with Heidel's literal translation of the passage in question:

" That the Mashu mountain(s) does so [keeps watch over the rising
and setting of the sun] 'every day,' as translated by Heidel,
Speiser, and others, is obviously wrong. Even if we stipulate, for
the sake of peace, the idea of a terrestrial moountain, the sun is
not in the habit of rising on the same spot everyday, and it needs
no profound astronomical knowledge to become aware of this fact."
[31][31]

De Santillana and von Dechend are certainly correct that it does not
require much sophistication to be aware of the fact that the sun
cannot rise and set upon the same mountain. Hence the anomaly
presented by the additional fact that analogous traditions can be
found throughout the ancient world. The Hindu Mount Meru, to take but
one of numerous examples, likewise presides over the rising and
setting of the ancient sun-god. [32][32] Indeed, it is the very
prevalence of this bizarre theme which should alert us to the
possibility that the ancients were describing a cosmos radically
different from the one known to modern astronomers.

The Mountain of Heaven and Earth

Another name for the sacred mountain in Sumerian cosmology was
_hursag_, invoked as "the mountain of heaven and earth" in an early
hymn ( _hur-sag-an-ki-bi-da_). [33][33] This phrase has given rise to
a lively controversy. Earlier scholars, such as Jeremias and Jensen,
were united in the opinion that "the mountain of heaven and earth" had
reference to the widespread theme of the World Mountain. [34][34] This
idea has since been defended by Kramer and Bruschweiler, among others.
[35][35] It is fair to say, however, that this view is no longer in
vogue, primarily because of the writings of Thorkild Jacobsen.
Jacobsen, in keeping with his marked tendency to terrestrialize
mythical themes, would interpret the _hursag_ as the mountainous range
bordering Mesopotamia to the east: "As seen on the eastern horizon,
its shining peaks towering from earth up into heaven, the _hursag_
appears indeed to belong equally to both of these cosmic entities, and
the epithet here applied to it, 'of both heaven and earth,' is
therefore as forceful as it is apt." [36][36]

A recent survey of the Cosmic Mountain motif in the ancient Near East
offered the following opinion, one obviously infuenced by the
researches of Jacobsen:

"It should be noted immediately that the concept of Weltberg or
Landerberg, the world conceived as a huge mountain with heaven at
the peak and the underworld at the base, once widely used by
students of Mesopotamian thought, is today seldom used. It is
increasingly recognized that mountains simply were not central to
the experience of the Mesopotamians." [37][37]

W.G. Lambert, arguably the world's foremost authority on Sumerian
cosmology, was only slightly more open to the concept of a World
Mountain:

"There are, it is true, some allusions to the concept of a cosmic
mountain, but these occur in literary and poetic contexts and it is
not possible to reconstruct a precise image from them. The most
explicit ones speak of a mountain in the East from which the
sun-god rises every morning, and since the phenomenon was seen on
the horizon the term 'mountain' cannot be taken too literally."
[38][38]

It is our opinion that the negative opinions of Jacobsen and Lambert
represent a significant step backwards from the views of earlier
scholars. Not only is the concept of the World Mountain everywhere
apparent in Mesopotamian cosmology, a reappraisal of the evidence
warrants the conclusion that it was a visible celestial phenomenon and
thus firmly rooted in the natural world.

Be this as it may, in various ancient texts the _hursag_ is
interchangeable with the _kur_, and thus it is no surprise to find
that Inanna/Venus is brought into a specific relation with this sacred
site as well. One text describes Inanna as seated upon the _hursag_:
"(Inanna) who takes a seat on the highlands of the bright mountain,
who adorns the dais of the bright mountain." [39][39] In another hymn,
Inanna is invoked as the lion ( _pirig_) of the _hursag_-mountain.
[40][40] (Inanna was commonly invoked as the "lion" of heaven.)
[41][41]

Mars

If the presence of Venus atop the mountain of the Sun represents
something of an anomaly, more puzzling still are those passages which
describe the planet Mars (Nergal) as occupying the same celestial
mount! Thus, an ancient Sumerian hymn relates that Nergal was given
the _hursag_-mountain ( _hur-sag-ki-a_) as his special province.
[42][42]

Nergal is also brought into specific relationship with the _kur_. An
epithet of the Sumerian war-god characterizes him as _En-ki-kur-ra_,
"lord of the mountain land." [43][43]

Nergal is elsewhere said to rise "into the land of the rising sun [
_kur-utu-e_]." [44][44] Here the word translated as "land" by von
Weiher is none other than _kur_, so a perfectly literal translation
would be "He who rises into the mountain of the rising sun." This
interpretation is supported by another hymn, wherein Nergal/Mars is
invoked as follows: "You are horrifying like a flood, rising on the
mountain where the sun rises [ _kur-utu-e_]." [45][45] In a
fragmentary hymn of uncertain date, finally, Nergal is said to have
once defeated the agents of chaos upon the mountain of sunrise,
whereupon he replaced An and temporarily assumed the reins of heaven.
[46][46]

In the face of these traditions, it must be acknowledged that
Nergal/Mars was indissolubly connected with the mountain of sunrise.
Yet how are we to explain this peculiar feature of Sumerian cosmology?
For the fact is that, under the current arrangement of the solar
system, Mars does not appear to rise in the east with the Sun. Indeed,
the Sun and Mars are never visible together in the sky during those
relatively rare occasions when Mars moves in close proximity to the
Sun, the red planet only coming into view _after_ the Sun has gone
down. Moreover, when Mars does appear in the east, it is always faint
and typically invisible, being then on the other side of the Sun and
thus hundreds of millions of miles away from terrestrial viewers.
[47][47] Thus, while the passages invoking Venus/Inanna in conjuction
with the mountain of the sun might be considered to have reference to
some terrestrial mountain-top and Venus' current tendency to appear
close by the sun, such cannot be the case with Mars.

Equally baffling from an astronomical standpoint are those passages in
which Nergal/Mars is associated with the site of the sun's
disappearance. Witness the epithet _Lugal-ki-du-su-a_: "King of the
site of the Sunset." [48][48] According to Sjöberg, the epithet
_Hus-ki-a _likewise characterizes Nergal as "Lord of the sunset."
[49][49] A closely related epithet is _Lugul-du-su-a_: "King who
effects the Sunset." [50][50] Once again we are presented with a
glaring anomaly: What, if anything, does the planet Mars have to do
with the site of the sunset in the west? In the current arrangement of
the Solar System, the answer is simply "nothing." In apparent
recognition of this anomaly, some scholars have sought to question the
literal meaning of these epithets. [51][51]

Saturn

A survey of the Mesopotamian traditions surrounding the ancient
sun-god reveals one anomaly after another. Most baffling, perhaps, is
the identification of Shamash with the planet Saturn, widely attested
in Babylonian astronomical texts. [52][52] In a recent study of
astronomical conceptions in the ancient Near East, Koch-Westenholz
summarized the several attempts to explain Saturn's identification as
the ancient sun-god in these words:

" Parpola suggests that this identification may be due to an
association of Saturn's Akkadian name, derived from the root _kun_,
with _kittu_, 'justice', which is of course an attribute of
Shamash. Another explanation offered by Pingree is that the sun's
hyposoma sets as Saturn's rises. However, the earliest evidence for
the hyposomata is from the seventh century B.C., and the
association of Saturn and the sun is certainly older and far more
entrenched in the tradition than warranted by such arcane
speculations." [53][53]

As Koch-Westenholz rightly notes, the identification of Shamash and
Saturn appears to reflect a fundamental relationship between the
ancient sun-god and the distant planet. Yet how are we to explain this
curious situation? Why would the greatest astronomers of antiquity
describe a distant speck of light as a sun?

Sin

Very early on, the ancient peoples of Mesopotamia came to consider
Utu/Shamash, Nanna/Sin, and Inanna/Ishtar as forming a great triad in
the sky. [54][54] The _utukku lemnutu_ text, for example, reads as
follows: "They [the gods] installed Sin, Samas, and Ishtar to keep the
firmament (the vault of heaven) in order." [55][55] In the Sumerian
god Sin, most scholars recognize a personification of the Moon.
[56][56] That Sin is identifiable with the Moon during the period
encompassed by the _Enuma Anu Enlil_ texts (c. 686 BC), for example,
is obvious. The question here, however, is whether this identification
holds with regard to the role of Sin in the earliest art and
literature?

In ancient myth and cult, Sin generally assumes a subordinate role
compared to those of Shamash and Ishtar. Here von Soden offered the
following observation: "[Sin] is invoked in prayers much less
frequently than the Sun-god Shamash and Ishtar nor does he play a very
important role in myth." [57][57] Nor, for that matter, is the god
surely attested in anthropomorphic form among the extent art, a
strange situation indeed if the Moon was once the most important
figure of the pantheon, as many scholars would have us believe.
[58][58]

In ancient art, Sin is typically represented as a crescent. Indeed, an
early epithet of the god - _Ud-sar_- is said to signify the god as a
new moon, or crescent. [59][59] Yet the crescent of Sin was also
represented in conjunction with a disc, as in figure four
. [60][60] Of this symbol, van Buren suggested that it was " an
attempt to indicate the moon in all its phases." [61][61] Although a
crescent can be seen to adorn the current lunar orb after the fashion
illustrated here, it is probable that the disc associated with Sin is
that of the ancient sun rather than the Moon. This interpretation is
supported by the fact that it is exceedingly common to find the
crescent of Sin depicted enclosing the disc of Shamash in a recumbent
fashion (see figure five). [62][62] This latter image, needless to
say, presents numerous difficulties from an astronomical standpoint as
the sun does not currently move so as to appear to rest within the
horns of the lunar crescent.

Shamash and Sin are also mentioned together in various astronomical
texts. A common expression in ancient omens was _enuma Samas ina
tarbas Sin izziz_- "when Samas stands in the halo of the moon."
[63][63] As Jastrow rightly observes, "since this phenomenon can only
occur at night, Samas cannot of course be the sun." [64][64] Jastrow
goes on to adduce a wealth of evidence that, in such contexts, Shamash
can only have reference to the planet Saturn. [65][65]

How, then, are we to explain the curious relationship which pertains
between Sin and Shamash/Saturn?

The Saturn Thesis

Those who are familiar with the unfolding Saturnian scenario should be
well aware of Saturn's role in ancient myth and religion. The readers
of this periodical need hardly be reminded that the idea of Saturn as
the ancient sun-god was surprisingly widespread. [66][66] Thus,
according to this hypothesis, Saturn had only recently appeared as the
most prominent body in the sky, which body formerly moved in close
proximity to Earth. More than that, Saturn and the Earth seem to have
shared a common axis of rotation with the result that, as viewed from
earth, Saturn appeared fixed in the north polar sky as a gargantuan,
awe-inspiring form.

Among the most important discoveries that has come to light in this
respect has to do with the ancient imagery surrounding the
mythological crescent. As Talbott has documented, originally the
crescent of Sin had nothing to do with the current lunar orb. Instead
this crescent can be traced to a brilliant phase projected onto the
orb to the gas giant Saturn/Shamash. [67][67] According to Talbott,
the orientation of the Saturn-Earth configuration with respect to the
sun was such that a crescent phase appeared to adorn the disc of
Saturn, the crescent revolving around the ancient sun-god as the Earth
rotated on its axis. In an extensive analysis of the earliest Egyptian
art and literature, Talbott showed that the revolution of this
crescent formed the logical basis for the ancient conception of day
and night [68][68] in which the archaic day commenced at sunset. Thus
during this primeval "day" -what to us today would be night- a
recumbent crescent, shining brilliantly, would have adorned the orb of
Saturn. During the ancient "night," the crescent would have appeared
in an inverted position and was significantly diminished in brilliance
(see figure six
).

This very situation, in fact, would appear to be reflected in the most
ancient Sumerian writing system. Here the reader is directed to figure
seven
: the former pictograph, transcribed UD and signifying "day/morning,"
depicts a recumbent crescent with an orb (ostensibly the sun) set
within its horns; the latter sign, transcribed SIG and signifying
"night/ evening," depicts an inverted crescent with an orb nestled
within it. Inasmuch as Sumerian pictographs typically represented
familiar objeccts in the natural world, the celestial scenario behind
such signs is difficult to discern apart from the Saturn thesis.

Note further that the crescent of Sin, like the disc of Shamash, was
frequently set atop a pole-like standard (see figure eight
). [69][69] Here, too, it is difficult to point to an objective
celestial reference for the pole associated with Sin. Yet central to
the Saturn thesis is the postulate that Saturn was associated with a
heaven-spanning pillar of ethereal material, which flowed along the
shared axis. This colossal celestial pillar, seemingly uniting Earth
with the various celestial bodies -considered in conjunction with the
recumbent crescent- was the aforementioned World Mountain, between the
twin-peaks of which sat Saturn as the ancient sun-god. Inasmuch as
Saturn itself did not appear to move, remaining instead fixed in the
polar north, where it daily grew brilliant and then dimmed, it could
truly be said that the ancient sun-god both "rose" and "set" upon the
same celestial mount. [70][70]

Shamash, Ishtar, and Sin

In recent years it has become apparent that other planets also played
a fundamental role in the configuration associated with Saturn.
[71][fig09.gif] [71] According to the reconstruction offered by
Talbott and myself, the planets Mars and Venus moved between Earth and
Saturn, apparently sharing the same common axis of rotation of the
Earth. As the Earth-bound observer looked upwards, he would have seen
a spectacular image -Saturn dominating the sky, with the smaller Venus
and Mars set within it like two concentric orbs (see figure nine).

As preposterous as this thesis must appear from the standpoint of
physics and astrodynamics, there is a wealth of evidence supporting
it. Neolithic rock art, for example, records just such as image in
abundance upon all inhabited continents, commonly interpreted as a
symbol of the ancient sun-god (see figure ten
). [72][72] Significantly, it is this very image which came to serve
as the pictograph for "sun" in various ancient languages (Egyptian and
Chinese, for example). [73][73]

If, as we believe, such images preserve an objective record of the
former appearance of the ancient sun-god, it is possible to understand
certain anomalies surrounding the astronomical symbols associated with
Shamash, Ishtar, and Sin. The most common astronomical symbol for
Venus, as is well-known, was an eight-pointed star. [74][74] Yet this
very sign is frequently set upon the disc of Shamash ( figure eleven
)! [75][75] (The difference between this image and that illustrated in
figure ten, is simply that here Venus is depicted in its radiant
aspect, reflecting a further evolutionary phase of the polar
configuration). Other cylinder seals show the symbols of Venus and Sin
both superimposed upon the disc of Shamash, a ludicrous situation
apart from the thesis defended here. [76][76]

If the superimposition of the crescent of Sin upon the disc of Shamash
constitutes a glaring anomaly for archaeoastronomers pondering these
ancient cylinder seals, how much more bizarre must appear the
placement of the Venus-star within the horns of the same crescent (see
figure twelve
). Yet this very situation is represented on numerous extant cylinder
seals! [77][77] The same image can be found on Babylonian kudurru from
a later time (c. 1200BC). [78][78] Babylonian astronomical texts
likewise speak of Venus sitting within the horns of Sin. [79][79] Far
from being confined to Mesopotamia, this is one of the most popular
sacred images in all the world, still serving as the symbol of Islam.
[80][80] It goes without saying, of course, that the celestial
scenario depicted here is impossible given the current arrangement of
the solar system and the conventional interpretation of Sin as the
Moon, as Venus can never appear to rest within the horns of the lunar
crescent. [81][81] From the vantage point of the Saturn-thesis, on the
other hand, the placement of the Venus-star within the horns of Sin is
only to be expected. [82][82]

In light of the close proximity of Saturn, Venus, and Mars during the
period dominated by the polar configuration, it stands to reason that
there might be some mention of a relationship between Sin and the
planet Mars/Nergal. In his monograph devoted to the cult of Nergal,
von Weiher observed that Nergal was repeatedly invoked together with
Sin. [83][83] Consider the following hymn: "You [Nergal/Mars] are
exalted in the pure sky, your position is high, with Sin in the sky
you watch over everything." [84][84] As to the nature of the
connection between Sin and Nergal/Mars, von Weiher had nothing to
offer in the way of an explanation, noting only that it was very
"difficult."

But there is more to be learned from the anomalous relationship
between Sin and Nergal/Mars. Consider, for example, the following
passage: "Sin and Nergal guard the middle earth." [85][85] What, in
heaven's name, can be meant by this statement?

Taking our clue from the acknowledged relationship between the _kur_
and the _ki-gal_ -the "great below" or "great earth"- it can be seen
that the earth of Sumerian cosmology cannot be divorced from the
concept of the World Mountain. That the earth was viewed as a
two-peaked mountain only confirms this deduction. [86][86] Viewed from
the standpoint of the Saturn-thesis, the primeval "earth" of Sumerian
cosmology has reference to the crescent when positioned underneath ot
below the ancient sun-god. [87][87] Hence the parallelism between the
expressions _kur- [d]utu-e-a_, "the mountain where the sun rises," and
_ki- [d]utu-e-a_, "the site (or Earth) of the sun-rise," which we
noted earlier. As we have seen, Nergal/Mars was intimately associated
with the mountain of the sunrise, being said to rise or appear in the
_kur-u-e_. Yet the _hur-sag-ki-a_, literally "earth- mountain," was
regarded as his special province.

It is well-known, of course, that Nergal served as the Sumerian god of
the Underworld, the latter commonly known as the "earth." Various
names of Nergal/Mars commemorate this aspect of his cult. Witness the
name _Lugal-ki-gu-la_: "King of the great Earth." [88][88] The name
_Hus-ki-a_, "Angry one of the earth/netherworld," is of similar
import. [89][89]

Von Weiher, among others, called attention to the apparent antithesis
between Nergal as a heavenly power and as the King of the Underworld.
[90][90] Yet, as we have seen, there is no contradiction here: the
earth/Underworld of Sumerian cosmology was celestial in nature and had
reference to the twin-peaked World Mountain associated with the polar
configuration.

Heart of Heaven

A prominent concept in Sumerian cosmology was the "heart" or "midst"
of An (AN. SA.TA./ _kirib same_), thought to signify the innermost
space of heaven. [91][91] Again and again in the Sumerian texts, the
ancient sun-god is said to appear from this site:

[92]

"You are mighty over the mountain, you gaze upon the earth, you are
suspended in the midst of heaven to the ends of the world." [92][93]

"Samas, from the ground of heaven you flame up...Samas, when you come
forth from heaven, Samas, when you come forth from the midst of
heaven..." [93][94]
"The midst of heaven," it must be said, would appear to be a very
peculiar expression for the eastern horizon. In fact, the phrase has
nothing whatsoever to do with the horizon. Most significant for the
thesis defended here is the report that makes the heart of heaven the
place of the sun-god's "setting" as well as his "rising." [94][95]
Once again, this report is difficult to explain given the current
arrangement of the Solar System, yet it conforms exactly to the
reports surrounding the World Mountain, which likewise presided over
the "rising" and "setting" of the ancient sun-god.

Several ancient texts report that Inanna/Venus was wont to appear in
the heart of heaven. [95][96] Iddin-Dagan's marriage hymn to Inanna,
for example, contains a recurring stock phrase wherein the goddess is
described as looking down "from the midst of heaven." [96][97] In the
current arrangement of the solar system, such a position is impossible
for Venus to assume. Consequently, such passages are dismissed as
being metaphorical by scholars investigating these texts: "Since
astronomically such a position for Venus is excluded 'midst' must be
taken figuratively." [97][98]

The Gates of Heaven

If scholars have been sorely vexed trying to make sense of the
mountain of sunrise/sunset, they have fared little better when it
comes to the gates of heaven. Despite the fact that nearly every
ancient culture celebrated these gates or doors -themselves intimately
linked to the epiphany of the ancient sun-god and the ancient cycle of
day and night- a satisfactory explanation of the imagery has yet to be
forthcoming. [98][99] The Saturn-thesis, however, provides a ready
answer to this age-old mystery: The two doors of the sun-god are
simply the two peaks of the world mountain. Thus, as the ancient
sun-god customarily appeared between the two peaks of the cosmic
mount, so too was it wont to appear between two doors or gates. Here a
cylinder seal from Old Babylonian times (see figure two) is of utmost
interest since it shows the gates of the sun-god resting immediately
atop the two peaks of the mountain, as if the former were merely
extensions of the latter. [99][100]

In Sumerian cosmology, as we have seen, the two-peaked mountain of the
sunrise could also be described as a celestial earth. Thus, it stands
to reason that Shamash, in addition to appearing on the mountain of
sunrise, could likewise be said to appear within the gates of the
earth. Witness the following passage:

"You open the gateway of the wide earth. You bring light to the
Anunakku." [100][101]
Such a tradition can only seem incongruous to scholars who would base
their analysis upon the current solar system. [101][102]

Confronted with the gates or doors of the sun, scholars have
traditionally explained them as a metaphorical reference to the
eastern horizon. While this may seem an adequate explanation of the
gates associated with the ancient sun-god, it can hardly explain the
presence of the very same gates in the cult of Sin! Much like Shamash,
Sin was invoked as the opener of the doors of heaven. The expressions
_pitu dalat Anu_ and _pitu dalat same_ bear reference to this aspect
of his cult. [102][103]

An important hymn relates the opening of the doors of heaven to the
illumination of Sin: "Sin, as you become visible you open the doors of
heaven." [103][104] Here is another passage which can only appear as
an absurd poetic metaphor from the conventional perspective. Yet from
the vantage point offered by the Saturn thesis, this passage can be
taken as a literal description of the ancient cosmos: as the crescent
of Sin descended to a position beneath Saturn, it grew brilliant,
thereby signaling the opening of the doors or gates of heaven.

CONCLUSION

In the present article we have documented a host of anomalies in the
ancient testimony surrounding the various celestial bodies. References
to Venus or Mars residing atop a celestial mountain; Saturn as the
ancient sun-god; the crescent of the "Moon" depicted as enclosing
Shamash and/or Venus; Venus appearing at the "heart of heaven";
invisible doors of heaven associated with the cycle of Sin and many
more besides- all alike cry out for an explanation. Taken literally,
not one of these traditions makes any sense given the current
arrangement of the solar system.

It is our opinion that such anomalies can only be explained by
reference to a lost planetary arrangement, specifically that
reconstructed by the Saturn thesis. The difference between the
position defended here and the conventional one could hardly be more
striking. We maintain that the artistic record of the ancients-
replete with various celestial bodies superimposed upon one another-
forms a perfect complement to the literary testimony and constitutes
an objective record of the ancient skies. Mainstream scholarship, if
it addresses these anomalies at all, typically dismisses them as the
product of metaphor and artistic imagination, with the result that the
study of Sumerian cosmology remains mired amid a mass of
contradictions.

In addition to reaffirming the objective nature of the ancient
traditions surrounding the various celestial bodies, the Saturn thesis
has another singular advantage: if valid, it must follow that other
ancient cosmologies will present a similar picture of lost suns,
celestial mountains, and planets residing one on top of the other. Yet
such could hardly be expected if poetic metaphor and unbridled
imagination were the source of the ancients' imagery.

References