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IGNIS E COELO

_fire from heaven_

_ _

[3]Marinus Anthony van der Sluijs, January 2001

_ _

_ _

_ _

_introduction_

Prometheus fetches fire from heaven Among mythologists and students of
religion in general it has become a habit to systematically ignore
oddities and irregularities in the ancient testimony, placing stress
on what is deemed sound and intelligible only. A prime example of this
unspoken principle, which has in fact been attested since the
appearance of Plato's _Dialogues_, is the explanation given to
anomalous superstitions in _lightning lore_. No one will deny the
phenomena of lightning and thunder storms the central place they
occupy in the everyday experience of the godly realm. As a matter of
fact, the concept of the `storm god', who wields his thunderbolts over
a world eclipsed by heavy clouds, is deeply entrenched in the
superstitious imagination of mankind and seems to have been so since
the earliest days of writing at least. The impression that the idea of
the familiar storm god satisfactorily accounts for traditional
lightning lore is decidedly false, however. It is only once the
explanations and associations surrounding the lightning are subjected
to non-selective and unprejudiced investigation that the entirely
foreign character of the mythological lightning comes to the fore.
Rather than confirming the oft repeated standard text book's paragraph
on the storm god, the conclusion becomes unavoidable that mythological
lightning lore is firmly embedded in a set of interwoven symbols and
events which escape all possible analogies in the modern-day world.

The method to be followed is, as always, comparative and structuralist
in nature. If peoples in distant corners of the world agree on ideas
which are not directly understandable from observation of the current
natural world, proof is given by the geographical spread for the
antiquity of the concept, as diffusion of traditions is not assumed
between, e.g., the Americas and Oceania or between Africa and other
parts of the world. Dozens of such anomalous concepts can be collected
from the mythological record, but it would exceed the scope of the
present article even to mention them all. The focus will be on a
limited number of widespread traditions totally irreconcilable and
nevertheless associated with the lightning flashes illuminating our
heavens. As will be seen, lightning and fire are hardly to be strictly
separated in the realm of myth, lightning often being considered the
source of fire and the first fire, and fire being described as falling
down from heaven in the lightning. The mythology of lightning
overlaps, for that matter, with that of fire.

_the thunder bird_

It is needless to say that the phenomenon of natural lightning does
not in the least evoke the association with a bird. The rapid
zigzagging form certainly recalls the winding movements of the swift
serpent and the various hues may be compared to milk and fire
respectively, but a bird is not possibly to be discerned in our stormy
athmospheres. And yet, the image of a _thunder bird_ or _lightning
bird_ is virtually universal. The following survey will show how
closely the concepts of bird, fire and lightning are related in all
continents of the world. All three trace back to the mythical Hero,
otherwise known as the Warrior-Hero[4][1].

The African continent in particular provides numerous instances of
traditional lightning birds. The Xhosa people in South-Africa ascribe
lightning to the machinations of a magical thunder-bird, called
Umpundulu[5][2]. _Lightning was conceived as a bird, Impundulu or
Intakezulu, the bird of heaven. Thunder was the beating of its wings.
Impundulu was said to be dazzling in the brilliance of its different
colors. It set its fat on fire and sent it down as lightning. Where
this struck, it left its eggs[6][3] ..._ _Of myths connected with
thunder and lightning, perhaps the most remarkable is that of the
Lightning-bird, which is best known from the Zulu accounts; but we
find that the Baziba also think that lightning is caused by flocks of
brilliantly-coloured birds, which are flung down to earth by
Kayurankuba, the spirit presiding over storms; the thunder is the
rushing sound of their wings[7][4] ..._ _The Ganda, Gisu, and Amba
speak of God's presence in form _[sic! MAS] _of a cock supposed to be
seen when there is lightning[8][5]._ The concept is also found in the
northern part of Africa: _If during the months of hunger sheet
lightning is seen in the west, the Masai say that there is a big bird
of the heavens beating the water with its wings, and that what one
sees flashing is the water[9][6]._ And in West-Africa _So was the
lightning bird who flapped his wings and caused thunder[10][7] ..._

The African thunder bird is described in different ways. Among the
Bantu peoples, who generally belief that lightning and thunder are _a
bird which deposits its urine in the ground_, the bird _is variously
described, sometimes with wings so large that one could cover two men.
The concept is interesting because of similar lightning or
thunderbirds in other parts of the world. A Zulu informant discussed
it as follows: `A man may think it is red; again he sees it is not so,
it is green. But if he looks earnestly he may say `No, it is something
between the two colors as I am looking at it.'[11][8]_ _The Zulu are
among the many tribes in southern Africa who believe that lightning is
a large bird who lays a large egg wherever lightning strikes. Some
sources say the bird is a brown bird, others say it is a kind of heron
or fish eagle, and still others say it is a shiny red bird with
feathers like a peacock[12][9]._ _The Zulu Lightning-bird is described
by Callaway's informant as red and glistening ... But the
Lightning-bird has also been directly identified as a kind of heron,
called by the Boers _hammer-kop (Scopus umbretta)_, the destruction of
whose nest is said to cause rain[13][10]._ The red colour makes sense,
as lightning often results in fire; the green colour cannot easily be
related to lightning. By far the commonest form of lightning has a
white flash, however, and it is surprising that white birds are less
regularly associated with the thunder bird than red birds.

It is illuminating to see how exactly the lightning was associated
with the thunder bird. African tradition commonly connects the
phenomenon of lightning with the wings of the bird. _There are
peoples, like the Ambo, Lokoiya, Shona, Suk, Tonga, and Zulu, who say
that it is God who produces lightning. For the Ambo, he does so_ _by
shaking his tail which creates sparks of fire for the Shona, it is
when he is passing by; and for the Suk, it is through the flashing of
his huge wings[14][11]. _For the Nandi people, the lightning is a
_gigantic bird which has lightning as its wings[15][12]. The Suk
visualise God as having huge wings, whose flapping produces thunder
and lightning[16][13]._ Goldziher's opinion that originally _the bird
was probably regarded as being itself the lightning, because inversely
the lightning was treated as a bird[17][14] _may be too general_, _the
lightning rather being produced by the bird than being identical with
it.

_ _

The native inhabitants of North-America generally have the lightning
flash forward from the eyes of the bird, rather than from the wings.
_North American Indians worship various supernatural beings in avian
guise who produce thunder by the whir of their wings and lightning
with flashes - a winking or twinkling - of their eyes (Cree, Hare,
Tlingit, and other tribes)[18][15] ..._ _North Pacific Coast tribes
say lightning is the flash of the Thunderbird's eye[19][16]._ _Thunder
was caused by the thunderbird flapping its wings or even moving a
single quill, when it winked its eye, lightning flashed[20][17]_. On
the size of the thunder bird opinions differ. _Sometimes the
Thunderbird is described as huge, carrying a lake of water on his back
and flashing lightnings from his eyes[21][18] ..._ Among the Salish in
the northwest, the _Thunderbird is not so huge as the bird of the
Plains tribes; he is in fact a small, red-plumaged creature which
shoots arrows from his wing as from a bow, the rebound of the wing
making the thunder, while the twinkling of his eyes is the lightning;
the large black stones found in the country are the Thunder's
arrows[22][19]_. The Natchez Indians of the Lower Mississippi say that
after the flood a little bird named Coüy-oüy, which is entirely red,
brought the fire from heaven[23][20]. The Hurons too acknowledge a
spirit of thunder, lightning and rain, who is called Onditachiae and
described as partially human and partially turkey cock[24][21]. _The
Sioux and other Indian tribes of the Mississippi have a tradition that
after the great flood the man and woman who alone survived the
catastrophe received fire from a little grey bird[25][22] ..._ The
motif of the flashing eye is dealt with in an article published in
_Aeon_ by Ev Cochrane.

Significantly, the North-American Thunder Bird appears to have been
more than a marginal divinity: in many mythologies he occupies a
central position and plays the role of the Hero. In a tradition from
the northwest coast, the Thunder Bird is described as a form of Raven
or his son[26][23], Raven being the legendary culture Hero of the
tribes.

In some traditions the lightning is not so much identified with the
bird itself, as with its prey: a serpent held in its beak is a model
for the lightning. _A North American Indian superstition is to the
effect that thunder is caused by an immense bird, whose outspread
wings darken the heavens. It is named `Then-cloots'. The lightning is
caused by a serpent-like fish of immense size, with head as sharp as a
knife. When he puts out his tongue it makes the lightning. Its name is
`Ha-hake-to-ak', and the thunder-bird catches it for food[27][24].
_The motif of the struggle between bird and serpent is attested in
Scandinavia, Mesopotamia, India, Egypt and Meso-America, but the bird
is not always associated with fire. Thus, the eagle who transferred
king Etana of Kish to the sky had been battling with a serpent
earlier[28][25]. The Icelandic _Völuspa_ relates how the viper
Nidhoggr is in daily combat with the eagle at the foot of the oak
Yggdrasil[29][26]. In India it is the giant bird Garuda who struggles
with a reptile[30][27].

Horus, whose name may relate to Arabic _khuru_, `falcon', was a green
falcon[31][28]. He was always depicted with a falcon's head, his
hieroglyph was a falcon and he was lauded as _the venerable bird in
whose shadow is the wide earth; Lord of the Two Lands under whose
wings is the circuit of heaven[32][29]_. In the Pyramid Texts he is
lauded with the words: _O Morning Star, Horus of the Netherworld,
divine falcon ... whom the sky bore[33][30]_ ... As a falcon, too,
Horus defeated the serpentine Set[34][31]. The association between
Horus and the colour red was particularly well known. The god bore the
epithet _Hor-tesher_, `the red Horus'[35][32]. Harakhte, a form of
Horus, has been identified with the planet Mars[36][33].

Other Egyptian bird-gods were Shu, identical with the goose which laid
the world egg[37][34], Thoth, who had the head of an ibis[38][35], and
the _Bennu_ or Phoenix, but the latter is not a thunder bird in the
strict sense of the world, although it is closely related to the
phenomenon of fire. Cochrane and Talbott have argued that Shu and
Horus are equally clear-cut representatives of the Mars-god, both of
them closely related to the Greek Ares and Heracles, for
example[39][36]. It is interesting to learn that Impundulu was also
believed to be _the servant of death of the supreme being, _and that
he was _greatly feared as a messenger of death_. Horus' chthonic
aspects are conspicuous enough and need hardly mention. As a matter of
fact, the mythical Hero is intrinsically related to the phenomena of
war, death and the afterlife.

In Mexico it was the god Tlaloc who killed a snake or a dragon in the
shape of a bird; the dragon functioned as his
lightning-weapon[40][37]. The serpent is among the commonest symbols
for the lightning[41][38]. This is not to separate the divine bird
from the concept of lightning, but only to unite the concepts of the
bird and the lightning once more. In fact, the consistent placement of
the serpent _in the beak_ of the thunder bird suggests a close link
between the beak and the lightning. The lightning comes forth from the
beak of the thunder bird, just as other traditions have it spring from
the wings or the flashing eye. That serpent and bird on the deepest
level really represent a singular being is illustrated in other
depictions of Tlaloc, featuring him as a snake bird or a winged
dragon[42][39]. As such his horrendous face was bright and red like a
flaming fire and to express the same he was totally clad in
red[43][40].

With Tlaloc the Meso-American evidence of bright bird-Heroes is not
yet exhausted. Tezcatlipoca was connected to the turkey, as was
Tlaloc, and was also the bringer of the first fire:

_Tezcatlipoca was depicted as a creator of fire who used the
fire-drill. He was, therefore, connected with lightning as well as the
sun ... Like Tlaloc he was connected with the rain-bird, the turkey
(`the jewel fowl')[44][41]._

Xipe Totec, who was but a local version of the Red Tezcatlipoca, was
identified with the red spoonbill[45][42]. Huitzilopochtli's name
means `hummingbird' and in the form of that tiny bird he led the
ancestors to their historical homeland[46][43]. He also bequeathed the
fire to early mankind: _As we have seen, Huitzilopochtli was in one of
his aspects a fire god, and was also the first to give fire to
_men[47][44]. Huitzilopochtli hurled down the Xiuhcoatl, the turquoise
dragon, who was represented by a fire-breathing mask[48][45]. As a
serpent-wielding bird he is another precise match for Horus, Tlaloc
and the North-American Then-cloots. On the basis of a host of other
parallels Tezcatlipoca and Huitzilopochtli have both been identified
with the Hero and, more particularly, with the planet Mars. This
provides a solid link between Egyptian and Meso-American
Hero-traditions. Similar notions are much more widespread, however.

The linkage between the Hero, the lightning and a bird is corroborated
by evidence from India. _What we call lightning, was to the primitive
man a bird, not lightning at all ... The original meaning of the name
__n8g(b"H__, given by the Greeks to a kind of eagle or vulture - which
as has been noticed, has a connection with _Blitz_, the Phlegyans and
the Bhrgu-s - was not `a bird as swift as lightning' but `lightning'
itself[49][46]._ _The main application of the bird in the Veda is as
the eagle which carries off the Soma for Indra and which appears to
represent lightning[50][47]._ _The most prominent bird in the Veda,
however, is the eagle, which carries the soma to Indra and which
appears to represent lightning[51][48]_ _Lightning also is in some
verses connected with the purification of Soma[52][49] ..._ There is
hardly any doubt that it was the Vedic god Agni who represented the
lightning in the form of a bird, particularly of an eagle[53][50]:
_... the term eagle is connected with Agni Vaidyuta or
lightning[54][51] ..._  _On the other hand Agni is called the eagle of
heaven once and often a bird; the term eagle is applied in a
Br__~__hmana to Agni as lightning, and from these data Bloomfield
derives the conclusion that the whole origin of the myth of the
descent of Soma is the lightning flash, which comes forth from the
cloud, the castle of iron, and which brings down to the earth the
refreshing rain[55][52]._ As to confirm Agni's avian form one of his
epithets was _Suparna_, `well-winged'[56][53]. Agni was the fire god
par excellence in India. His fire was created _at the beginning of the
world_ before the fire of the sun had itself been ignited (Linga
Purana, I:59: 21ff.). He shone _refulgent like the sun, with
brilliance and with fiery flame, decked with imperishable sheen_ (Rig
Veda II:8:4). The indigenous population of India recognised his
presence in every manifestation of fire. Indeed, his very name
reflected one of the Proto-Indo-European words for `fire', _*ngni-_,
which is otherwise reflected in Latin _ignis_, `fire'. Thus, bird,
fire and lightning are all present in Agni's description.

The Maruts, the fear-inspiring retinue of demons following Agni - or
his alter egos Rudra or Indra - were intimately associated with
lightning: _This hymn will I make for the Marut host who bright in
native splendour cast the mountains down ... They gleam with
lightning, heroes, casters of the stone, wind-rapid Maruts,
overthrowers of the hills, oft through desire to rain coming with
storm of hail, roaring in onset, violent and exceedingly strong ... O
bounteous radiant Maruts, heroes of the sky_ (Rig Veda V:54:1-10).
_They are also said to have been born from the laughter of lightning
(1, 2312, cp. 388) ... They are particularly often associated with
lightning, _vidyut_ (5, 542. 3. 11; 1, 645). The lightnings smile down
on earth when the Maruts shed their ghee (1, 1688, cp 5, 526). The
lightning lows like a cow, as a mother following her calf, when they
shed their rain (1, 388). They are like lightnings shining with rain
(7, 5613). Lightning is so characteristic of them that all the five
compounds of _vidyut _in the RV. are connected with the Maruts and,
excepting a single instance, with them only. They hold lightning in
their hands (8, 725; 5, 5411), they delight in lightnings and cast a
stone (5, 543). Their lances _(i) _are often mentioned, and that these
represent the lightning is shown by their epithet _rstividyut_,
`lightning-speared' (1, 1685; 5, 5213)[57][54]._

There is compelling evidence to prove that Agni had originated as a
name for the planet Mars, as Agni conforms in many aspects to the
mythical Hero. He was a youthful god with light coloured hair, who
slew the dragon Vrtra in his warrior aspect[58][55]. He stretched out
heaven and earth[59][56], supported the sky as a column[60][57],
travelled to the underworld[61][58], and led the ghosts of the dead to
their final destination[62][59]. In fact, he was a mirror image of the
great warrior Indra. Cuneiform texts dating from the epoch of the
Mitanni empire make mention of a god _A-ag-ni-is_, whose function
perfectly matches that of Nergal in similar texts[63][60]. This will
have been the Indo-Aryan Agni; a number of other Indo-Aryan deities
have been found in contemporary cuneiform texts as well. Explicit
indications to prove the original identity of Agni and the planet Mars
are lacking, but when all evidence is taken into account, the final
assessment will show the complete symmetry between Mars, Ares, Nergal
and other Martian divinities beyond a shadow of a doubt. A first
attempt is made in Ev Cochrane's masterful _Martian metamorphoses_
(1997, Ames).

In short, Agni was a Martian god who obtained the Soma from heaven in
the form of a prey-bird, the constellation as a whole being described
in lightning-terms. Indra too transported the Soma through the sky and
is on one occasion identified as a quail, hawk or eagle[64][61], and
Indra's affinity with Mars has become undeniable since the appearance
of _Martian Metamorphoses_. The parallel tradition of the bird Garuda
`tearing up' the Soma (Mah~bh~rata I, 33. 10) leads me to suppose that
Garuda and Indra were representations of the same divine figure in
pre-Vedic times. The tradition of the bird carrying off the celestial
beverage is matched in northern Europe and North-America. The native
American peoples in northwest America trace their descent to the
culture hero Raven, whose very name reveals his ornithomorphy. The
Tlingit knew him as Yehl and recounted how he once obtained the holy
water for the ancestors[65][62]. _The Eskimo of Bering Strait
similarly profess to have learned the art of fire-making from the
raven[66][63]._ _According to the Buriats of Siberia, a swallow stole
fire from Tengri, ..., and brought it to men[67][64]._ And the
Scandinavian mystery god Odin stole the mead of the fiery Suttung in
the disguise of an eagle[68][65]. The giant bird Hraesvelgr, who
brought the storm[69][66], may have been an avatar of Odin himself.
The parallelism is truly astounding.

The close connection of the lightning and the bird has been preserved
intact in northern Europe_ _until the modern age, particularly in
superstition and folk custom. Birds _have been viewed as magically
bringing rain and controlling thunder and lightning ... __Um das Haus
vor B.schlag zu bewahren, nagelt man Eulen, Eulenflügel oder
Fledermäuse an die Haustüren_[70][67]_._ _All ferns are traditionally
associated with thunder and lightning, and according to one belief,
the lines on the bracken-stem represent an eagle, which is a
thunder-bird[71][68]. The concept of the wren as a firebird includes a
linkage with lightning[72][69].`To kill a wren in some parts of France
was regarded as a crime which might `bring down the lightning' - the
culprit's dwelling being thus destroyed. Even touching the bird in its
nest meant that the offender would be struck by lightning[73][70]
...`The wren's nest was said to be protected by lightning,' thus
anyone who attempted to steal the wren's eggs or young would `find
their house struck by lightning and their hands would shrivel up' ...
The wren as a lightning bird, was `sacred to Donar, the lightning
god'[74][71]. _In Germany, _no fire will break out in a house where a
crossbill is kept in a cage, neither will lightning strike the
dwelling and this immunity can only be ascribed to the protective
colouring of the bird, the red hue of its plumage serving to ward off
the red lightning and to nip a red conflagration in the bud[75][72]._
Sir James Frazer reasons that the red colour is responsible for the
association with lightning, just as in North-America and Africa. For
this reason, storks and cocks are also conceived as fire-birds and,
therefore, as lightning birds: ... _vor allem Vögeln, den Störchen,
Hähnen usw., die mit ihrem Schnabel dem B., mit ihrem roten Farbe der
Feuernatur des Donar-Thor entsprechen[76][73]._ _So gilt vor allem der
Storch als Gewittervogel; ... Beim Storch wird der rote Schnabel als
B. aufgefaßt; beim Specht, der gleichfalls als Gewittervogel bekannt
ist, der scharfe Schnabel und die rote Haube. Weiter gilt als vor B.
schützend die Heerschnepfe, vor allem aber der Hahn (roter Kamm),
dessen Verwendung als Wetterhahn auf Häusern und Kirchtürmen
hinreichend bekannt ist ... Nester von Schwalben gelten in Oldenburg
und der Lüneburger Heide als Apotropaia (...)_[77][74]_._ Remnants of
a former belief in the thunder bird can be found in Scandinavia too:

_The elaborate little amulets in bronze and silver from the tenth
century are more complex symbols. Some have faces with round, staring
eyes, and sometimes also the beak of a bird of prey, evidently
influenced by the familiar motif of the eagle. It seems likely that
these were intended to portray the terrible fiery eye of the god of
the lightning, emphasized in the literature, while it is noticeable
that the hammer-head sometimes takes the place of a beard ... There
are also patterns of circles and criss-cross lines on the hammers,
suggesting rain and lightning[78][75]._

A representation of Thor's hammer dating from the Viking period
clearly shows the head of a bird, the weapon coming forth from the
bird's beak, although the fact goes unnoticed[79][76].__

Similar connections between the Martian god and the lightning are
found elsewhere too. South-Germanic peoples connected the fire- and
lightning-birds with the ancient deity Donar, as we have seen.
Although this god was by the Romans identified with Jupiter, there is
no doubt that Donar and his Scandinavian counterpart Thórr represent
the Heroic archetype, just as Zeus-Jupiter does. A related figure is
the Finnish Ukko, who _struck lightning and brought it down to earth,
where it was swallowed by a pike in Lake Alue[80][77]_. He is pictured
with lightning in his hands[81][78], and is in the Kalevala described
as the source of honey that dropped from the clouds[82][79]. Ukko's
honey, Agni's Soma, Odin's mead and probably also Yehl's divine water
are all expressions for the divine brew, the nectar or ambrosia of the
Greeks, which is obtained from heaven and consumed by gods and
ancestors alike.

Among the Celtic peoples, Lugh and Taranis appear as representatives
of the lightning bird. Lleu, who is but the Welsh version of the
Gaulish Lugus, lived as an eagle in an oak[83][80]. His name might
derive from _*lougos_ `raven'[84][81]. Significantly, Lug was renowned
for his brillant red form and was explicitly identified with the god
Mars by the Romans[85][82]. He was also equated with Jupiter,
Leucetius and Taranuctus, the latter being inseparable from the
Gaulish Taranis, a storm god, known for his lightning[86][83], who
survived in the Medieval character of Taran. He, too, was described as
an eagle[87][84].

That the European belief in the thunder bird has ancient roots is
proven by material from the classical world. To the Romans, the eagle,
emblem of Jupiter, served as lightning bearer[88][85]. The eagle was
chosen by Jupiter as a preservative against lightning[89][86]
_(Columella, X; Suetonius in Vit. Aug., XC; ditto in Vit. Tib., LXIX)._
The woodpecker, too, was identified as such. _Thus Picus, originally
only the woodpecker, was in the belief of the Latins the Fire-Bird. He
was Lightning and Man; ... Picus is shown to be a Lightning-Bird and
Lightning-Man[90][87], ..._ Interestingly, the god Picus contained the
identity of the much more important god Mars in a nut-shell: in the
form of a woodpecker he led the ancestors to their historical
country[91][88]. This is precisely what Mars himself is believed to
have done. He prophesied in the form of a woodpecker in an ancient
oracle near Reate[92][89] (Dionysus, I. 41). And as a woodpecker or a
wolf he led migrations[93][90]. The resemblance between Picus and Mars
amounts to identity when it is seen that Picus is occasionally crowned
with the epithet _Martius_: the Martian[94][91].

There is no evidence for a direct association between lightning and
the god Mars in the perception of the average Roman worshiper, but
archaic traces in the lore surrounding the _planet_ Mars come to our
aid, showing that like conceptions may once have existed. According to
Apuleius, the planet Mars was regarded as a fire-star[95][92]. Pliny
relates how once a thunderbolt had fallen from the planet Mars on
Etruscan Volsinium: _A bolt fell from Mars on Bolsena, the richest
town in Tuscany, and was not that city said to have been burned up by
the bolt?_ (Pliny, _Naturalis Historia_, II. 53).

Zeus appeared in the form of an eagle, but also as a swan, a dove or a
cuckoo[96][93]. His Roman counterpart Jupiter is adorned with a barely
known epithet _Minianus_, `vermilion, red', which testifies to his
fiery colour in at least one cultic centre[97][94]. Apollo was
associated with hawks, swans, ravens, crows and vultures[98][95]. As a
coloniser Apollo often had the form of a raven or dolphin, like in
Cyrene and Crisa[99][96]. As a hawk he descended from Mount
Ida[100][97]. Adonis was called `the dove' and at the ceremonies in
honour of his resurrection from the dead, the devotees said: `Hail to
the dove, the restorer of light!'[101][98]. And Adonis was as
inseparable from the bright red colour as all other gods mentioned:
the blood of his passion turned the waters red (Lucian, _De Dea
Syria_, VIII), whereas the scarlet anemone was a symbol of the dying
Adonis: _Tammuz's blood is allegorical of the anemones that redden the
slopes of Mount Lebanon after the winter rains[102][99] ..._(compare
Servius, on Virgil, _Eclogai_, X. 18; _Orphic Hymn_, LV. 10;
Ptolemaeus Hephaestionus, I. 306).

The Tamil god Murukan, who was identified with Indra and Skanda, is
traditionally associated with a red cock[103][100]. Several
North-Altaic peoples too describe the thunder as a bird[104][101]. The
`thunderbolt bird' is one of the symbols of Num, the supreme sky god
of the forest Yurak, who are a branch of the Uralic Samoyed[105][102].
In China the _feng huang_ was the sacred fire bird. _It was truly a
magnificent creature to behold, and it had the features of several
different animals. It had the head of a swan; the throat of a swallow;
the beak of a chicken; the neck of a snake; the legs of a unicorn; the
arched beak of a turtle; and the stripes of a dragon. Its feathers
were made up of the five sacred colors: black, white, red, green, and
yellow[106][103]._ The variety of colours recalls the varying hue of
the South-African thunder bird. _The Menri of the Malay Peninsula say
that the first fire was brought to them by a woodpecker[107][104] ..._
_In the island of Kiwai, off New Guinea, the natives say that the
first fire was brought to them by the black cockatoo, and that the red
streak round the bird's mouth still shows where it was burned by the
glowing fire-stick which it carried in its beak[108][105]._ In Tahiti,
the great culture hero Tane was said to be incarnated in a
seagull[109][106]. Interestingly, it is also told that Maui once
entered `a red pigeon of Tane': the bird is once more identified as a
red bird in this time in Oceania[110][107]. Maui changed himself into
a hawk amidst a big fire:

_But the flames gave him no pause, and it seemed as if they would
envelop him. He was angry with pain and mortification; by his magic he
changed himself into a hawk, and flew high into the air; but the
flames leaped higher, and burned his feathers, and the feathers of the
hawk are to this day brown as with fire[111][108] ..._

The emblem of Tangaloa was _Tuli_, the `golden plover'[112][109], and
the Tongans say that this bird was sent down to earth to search for
land under his name of _Tangaloa-atu-logo-logo_, `celestial
messenger'[113][110]. It does hardly come as a surprise to find that
`all that was red belonged to Tangaroa'[114][111] and to learn that
Tangaroa was bright red in colour[115][112]. The Samoans have a war
god Tu, who is associated with red colour and a red bird[116][113].
The aboriginals of San Cristoval, near the Solomons, venerate a sacred
red stone named Wabina, after the hawk Bina[117][114]. The inhabitants
of the island of Nauru remember _Tabuerik, the deity of lightning and
thunder, who, in the form of an omnipotent bird, soared in the
beginning over chaos, for the heavens still lay prone upon the earth
and sea[118][115]._

In South-American religions, the shaman's soul may variously assume
_the physical form of a bird, a beam of light, a lightning bolt, a
cloud, or a breeze[119][116]. _These concepts are, therefore, clearly
associated even if the common denominator is hard to grasp. _The
Tapiete Indians, another tribe of the Gran Chaco, say that the black
vulture obtained fire by means of lightning from heaven[120][117]._
_The Choroti Indians of the Gran Chaco say that, ..., they got fire
from a black vulture[121][118] ..._ _According to the Jibaros of
Ecuador the first fire was brought to them by a humming-bird[122][119]
..._ It will be remembered that the humming-bird was a form of
Huitzilopochtli in Meso-America. _The Tembes, an Indian tribe of
north-eastern Brazil, say that fire was formerly in possession of the
king vultures[123][120] ..._

The Australian aboriginals are supposed to represent a very ancient
offshoot of the human branch, which has developed in almost complete
isolation from the rest of the world since thousands of years. It is,
therefore, of utmost significance to find that the tribes of Eastern
Australia are explicit in their attribution of a bird form to the
Heroic ancestor. Mullyan, the eagle-hawk, burned with all his
relatives in the top of a tree and returned to the sky as the Morning
Star[124][121]. Traditional astrology variously associates the planets
Venus, Mars and Mercury with the Morning Star and it is only too
unfortunate that the exact identification is missing in our source. In
his aspect as the eagle-hawk Mullyan is doubtless a local version of
Bunjil, the great creator of South-East Australia. The people near
Lake Tyers in Victoria believe that _Bunjil borandang_, `the creating
Bunjil', was the `grey plover'[125][122], but according to Andrew Lang
his name means `eagle-hawk'[126][123]. The aboriginals of Western Put,
near Melbourne, associated Bunjil with the planet Jupiter[127][124].
This connection is interesting, as Roman Jupiter's emblem was also an
eagle. _Among the _Murray River _people, Mars was Bilyarra, the
eaglehawk ancestor_[128][125]_.The Boorong tribe of north-western
Victoria alleged that fire was first given to the natives by a crow,
whom they identified with the star Canopus[129][126]._ _The Booandik
tribe of South Australia had a tradition that fire originated in the
red crest of a cockatoo[130][127] ..._ The Bunurong aboriginals in
Victoria have an interesting tradition surrounding a Hero whose name
is Toordt:

_They say he was burnt to death on a mountain named Mun-ni o, where he
had kindled a fire to keep alive the small quantity he had procured.
But some of the sorcerers deny that he was burnt to death on that
mountain; they maintain that for his good deeds Pund-jel changed him
into the fiery star which white men call the planet Mars[131][128]._

The apparently contradictory identification of the fire-bird with
Canopus, Mars or Jupiter is not as insoluble a problem as it seems to
be. The mythical biographies of gods associated with the planets Mars
and Jupiter and with particular stars, such as Sirius, constantly
overlap and seem to be derived from one ancestral archetype. The
figure of Zeus-Jupiter corresponds in numerous facets - other than the
`ruler of heaven' and the `storm god' motifs - with that of Martian
heroes, as will be shown elsewhere. It is true that Bundjil and Toordt
are opposed in the Bunurong tradition, perhaps as Jupiter and Mars,
but this is no conclusive evidence for a supposed distinction between
the two.

It may be safely concluded from this survey that the idea of the
thunder bird is represented in most cultural centres of the world and
attains the status of a universal mythical motif. In the original
conception the thunder bird is a red form of the culture hero, who
descends from heaven and brings the fire to the first people in the
form of lightning or an intoxicating brew. The identification of the
culture hero with the planet Mars is an almost irrefutable corollary
of the concept.

Although the bird is often endowed with a red colour, such is not
always the case. This is not to deny the consistency and coherence of
the mythical record. North-American traditions in particular describe
the lightning as forthcoming from the bird's eyes, whereas African
folklore has it issue from its wings. Other traditions, attested in
ancient Egypt, Meso-America and northern Europe, insist that the
lightning was a writhing serpent in the beak of the bird. All this is
to indicate that the lightning was rather a temporary, unstable effect
surrounding the appearance of the Hero than a feature completely
identical with his nature. Bird and lightning were inseparably linked,
but not altogether identical. This is the implication of the material
reviewed above. In the symbolism of the hero who brings down the
celestial ambrosia, the ambrosia is functionally identical with the
fire and the lightning brought down in competing traditions.

_the double axe_

The most familiar lightning motif is that of the storm god wielding
his thunder weapon in the form of a club, a hammer or a double axe.
Examples need hardly to be mentioned. Thórr hurls his _Mjöllnir_ to
cast thunder and lightning upon the earth. Zeus throws his _Keraunos_
in the form of lightning. Indra's favourite weapon, the _vajrá-_, is
associated with lightning too. It is not necessary to review all forms
taken by the thunder weapon, but the double axe deserves special
mention, both because of its antiquity as a symbol and its total
incompatibility with the lightnings that ordinary people are used to
see in the skies.

_The double axe is first identified, still in stone form, in the
fourth millennium at Arpachiyah in Upper Mesopotamia; in the third
millennium it appears in Elam and Sumer and also in Troy II. It
reaches Crete in Early Minoan times - earlier, therefore, than the
horn symbol[132][129]._ Perhaps the oldest named divinity associated
with the double axe is the Sumerian Iskur, who is followed by the
pan-Semitic figure Adad or Hadad. _On the monuments Adad is
represented standing upon a bull, hurling a thunderbolt in his right
hand and holding forked lightning in his left. A crouching bull with a
two forked bolt of lightning rising from his back, a figure consisting
of three forks of lightning, are his symbols. A Sumerian hymn
describes Adad in the following verses: ... The lightning thy
messenger goeth before (thee)[133][130]._ The South-Arabian Sabaeans
symbolise their god Almaqah _by a cluster of lightning flashes and a
weapon which looks like a slightly bent capital S[134][131]_. In
ancient Turkey the double-headed axe and the cluster of lightning
flashes were attributes of Tesub[135][132]. It is probably from there
that the Greeks borrowed the idea of the _labrys_, the double-axe, and
added it to Zeus' paraphernalia. _Many points go to prove that the
double-axe is a representation of the lightning (...). The worship of
it was kept up in Tenedos and in several cities in the south-west of
Asia Minor, and it appears in later historical times in the cult of
the thundergod of Asia Minor (Zeus Labrayndeus). An impression from a
seal-stone shows the double-axe placed together with a zigzag line,
which represents the flash of lightning[136][133] (...)._ The Syrian
Dolichenus, too, was shown with a double-headed axe and a cluster of
lightning flashes[137][134]. He was identified as Zeus Dolichenus in
classical times. Greek testimony with regard to the double axe goes
back to the Minoan epoch._ The double-axes, ..., are placed on pillars
encircled with foliage, probably a representation of the trees struck
by lightning (...), ... The axes have a double edge on both sides, a
characteristic which they have in common with many other
representations of sacred axes (...)_ (Hagia Triada, Crete; MAS)
_Paribeni regards these axes as a kind of perspective rendering of
axe-blades set crosswise with edges pointing to the four corners of
the earth[138][135]._ On a sarcophagus in Crete the _double-axes are
yellow with black stripes[139][136] ... on one particularly well-drawn
picture of such a double-axe there is a zigzag line between the
sloping lines (_Knossos)[140][137]. From Crete the image has descended
into historical times. The double-axe as a thunder weapon was a
well-known concept in the Roman empire. _Bronze coins of Augustus and
Septimius Severus (...) have on the reverse the figure of a double-axe
surmounted by a trident; below the figure is a crab. That this
combination of axe and trident did not originate in the time of the
Roman empire may be seen from coins of Alexander stamped at Mylasa, on
which the prongs of the trident grow out of the actual blade of the
axe[141][138]._ In India, near Vellore, is a sanctuary in the middle
of which_ stands a large tree. Close to this tree three pointed stones
(in some cases five, or in others only one) are generally put on end
and fixed in the clay, ... The shape of these stones, ..., should, if
possible, resemble that of a somewhat flattened cone, ... When
worshipping they smear these stones with saffron and make three red
aniline dots on each stone with their fingers ... A small _trisula _is
stuck into the earth next to the stones[142][139] ..._ The combination
of trident and axe casts light on the origin of Poseidon's trident.
The original form of the trident will have been the double axe mounted
on a staff.

All this has been well known since long. And yet, it comes as a
surprise to find that the double axe once had a much wider occurrence
than the Old World only, extending into areas even where diffusion
from the Near East is supposed never to have happened. The symbol is
well attested in prehistoric Europe, as documented by Green: _... and
an S on its side could, in Romano-Celtic contexts, represent the
thunderbolt or lightning-flash of the sky god[143][140] ..._ _The
bronze figurine from Le Châtelet (Haute-Marne) presents similar
imagery, but on this occasion the thunderbolt takes the form of
S-shaped strands, and there are further S-shapes hanging from the
figure's shoulder, perhaps spare lightning-flashes[144][141] ..._ In
the east, it is found that many early statues of Buddha show him
_carrying in his right hand a double-headed vajra or Dorj__`__, a
thunderbolt with prongs at each end, like a pointed
dumb-bell[145][142]._ The Yoruba in Nigeria worship Shango or
Oshe-Shango, to whose head a double-headed axe symbolic of the
thunderbolt is attached[146][143]. A West-African thunder and
fertility god, the ram Xevioso, is pictured with the thunder axe in
his mouth - and it is a double axe[147][144]. _The Australian
aborigines depict their lightning and weather spirit as a demon framed
by a double arc springing from its head[148][145]._ One of the
North-Australian Lightning Brothers, Tcabuinji, killed his younger
brother Wagtjadbulla _with his stone axe._ _In the painting the
twelve-foot figure of the young brother towers over the elder who
carries a forked object beneath his left arm. One inquirer was told by
his aboriginal informant that this was Cananda, but others claimed it
was the axe used as the weapon and that Tcabuinji could split whole
trees with it when he struck as lightning[149][146]._ The stone axe is
also the tool by which Narrangem or Namarrgon the Lightning Spirit
produces thunder[150][147]. It is fascinating to see that the odd
image of a two-bladed axe is attested as far apart as Australia,
Africa, India and Europe, whereas the phenomenon of lightning itself
simply does not inspire such an idea, the zigzagging forms never
featuring any kind of regular symmetry. The double axe as a symbol is
as foreign to the lightning bolt as the bird.

_the mythical archetype_

Nevertheless, there is a remarkable degree of consistency in mythical
imagery. The lightning bird and the double axe are expressly connected
with each other in Minoan art. In Hagia Triada, Knossos, a _double axe
on which a bird is perched is set up beside a tree sanctuary[151][148]
_... _The double-axes, ..., are placed on pillars encircled with
foliage, probably a representation of the trees struck by lightning
(...), ... On the axes are birds[152][149] ..._ Serious scholars agree
that juxtaposition of images is often used as a means to convey the
idea of identity or close correlation in ancient art. The suggestion
is, then, given that the thunder bird and the double axe are closely
related symbols.

It is our contention that the sole key to an understanding of
mythology and ancient religion is the mythical archetype. The mythical
archetype is to be defined as a highly concrete concept, endowed with
colour, form, and size, which has a defined function in relation to
all other archetypes and a unique place in a fixed chain of successive
events. Yet the archetype is not to be identified with any concrete
object in nature, be it the sun or the moon, an animal, a motion, the
earth, or a star, in spite of its detailed description and its
intimate connection with all of these natural phenomena. How the
archetypal myth is to be accounted for cannot be discussed here,
although readers familiar with the articles appearing in _Aeon_ will
have a fairly good idea where we are going. In myth, each archetype is
rendered in a variety of different symbols, accounting for facets of
the original archetypal concept. When this principle is applied to the
themes of the lightning bird and the double axe, the bird and the
double axe are defined as two different symbols sprouting from the
same archetype. What form this archetype had can only be deduced by
reconstruction. Obviously the two blades of the axe correspond to the
two wings of the bird, whereas the tail feathers or the beak of the
bird will correspond to the shaft of the double axe or the pillar on
which it is perched. The archetype must thus have featured a central
body to which two symmetrical appendages are attached. As a red hue is
persistently associated with the bird, it will have characterised the
archetype as well. The lightning will have sprung from the wings, the
eyes or the beak.

Crucial to our method is that the images associated with lightning are
not believed to be _derived _from the concept of lightning, but share
a common archetypal origin _with_ the lightning. This is necessitated
by the irreconcilability of bird, double axe and lightning in the
normal world, and in full accord with everything else that can be
learned from the nature of the archetype. Thus, the lightning will be
a symbolisation of the archetype as much as the bird and the double
axe are. As a side-effect it will be clear that the bird and the
double axe may also have other associations than the link with
lightning alone, just as lightning is associated with numerous other
symbols than those two only. This is the unifying nature of the
mythical archetype.

This will be illustrated with a few more examples. The lightning is
also associated with the two arms of a god. The Pueblo god _Alosaka_,
who has two horns, _is represented as without arms, and in their place
are wings and two lightning bolts[153][150]._ The Western Achomawi say
that lightning issues from Thunder's hand, when he raises his arm to
strike[154][151]. The M~ori in New Zealand and aboriginal tribes of
South-America too know of lightning flashes issuing from the armpits
of a hero[155][152]. The two arms as images for the lightning clearly
occupy a functional position identical with that of the blades of the
axe and the wings of the bird; in the case of Alosaka the association
of arms and wings is made explicit. This means that the god was
identified with a central body with two attached appendages, which are
alternately symbolised as wings or as arms. The double aspect of the
lightning may also be a clue to the nature of the _lightning twins. _

_the lightning twins_

The strange nickname with which Jesus bestowed two of his disciples,
James and John, has always excited wonder from the side of
commentators. For why would two brothers be styled _Boanerges_, or
`sons of thunder'[156][153]? Around that time it was customary among
certain groups of Jews to identify sect members with divine beings;
Essene leaders, for instance, were called by the names of traditional
archangels. This may serve to support the view that the enigmatic
appellation was originally applied to a divine twin. Such is at least
suggested by the way other peoples interpreted the Christian
nomenclature. Thunderstones were widely called `Zebedaei-stones' in
Denmark, recalling the name of Zebedaeus, the father of the Nazorean
twins[157][154]. _The Indians of Peru entertained similar notions as
to the special relation in which twins stand to the rain and the
weather. For they said that one of each pair of twins was a son of the
lightning; and they called the lightning the lord and creator of rain,
and prayed to him to send showers ... After their nominal conversion
to Christianity, the Peruvian Indians retained their belief that one
of twins was always the son of the lightning, and oddly enough they
regularly gave him the name of St. James (Santiago)[158][155]._ Sir
Frazer then wonders: _If James and John had been twins, we might have
suspected that their name of Boanerges had its origin in a
superstition like that of the Peruvian Indians. Was it in the
character of `sons of thunder' that the brothers proposed to call down
fire from heaven on a Samaritan village (Luke ix. 54)[159][156]?_

So much is sure that the motif of the lightning brothers is found in
remote parts of the world, in which no known exchange of culture has
taken place. A brief survey will suffice to prove this point.

_The Cherokee people of North America depicted Thunder as Lightning's
twin brother. They called him Tame Boy, and said that he played
rumbling games of ball across the sky with his brother, Wild
Boy[160][157]._ _... the twin gods of war are central figures in Zuni
mythology and religion. Their umbilical cord symbolizes the _axis
mundi_, the center or navel of the world, and their lightning powers
of destruction continue to serve the Zuni and all peoples[161][158]._
Moon's annotation regarding the Axis Mundi is of utmost importance, as
it helps to pin down the correlation between the archetypal lightning
and the world axis, proving that the mythical lightning has nothing to
do with the ordinary, atmospherical lightning. The Navaho brothers
Nayanezgani and Thobadzistshini wore _armour from every joint of which
lightning shot, _and were equipped with _a great stone knife, and
arrows of lightning, ... The brothers returned to earth on a lightning
flash[162][159] ... Enumclaw and Kapoonis, in the myths of many
peoples of the Northwestern coastal US, were twins who went searching
for spirit servants who would give them power greater than any other
mortals. Enumclaw tamed a fire-spirit, and learned the skill of
hurling fragments of fire as if they were spears ... They began
swaggering across the land, terrorizing creation - and Father Sky was
so alarmed that he took them into his kingdom and made them spirits
themselves. Enumclaw became lightning (which has ever afterwards been
called by his name), and Kapoonis became thunder[163][160]._ In
northern California and southern Oregon it _is also believed that
Thunder is a man, Lightning a woman, often his wife; or Thunder a boy,
Lightning his younger brother[164][161]._ The Pueblo know of the
Little War Twins. _Many of their prodigies were performed with
lightning[165][162]._ _Twins made canyons with lightning; made
mountains and rocks; everything that is finished[166][163]._

Proceeding from North-America to South-America, we find the following
curious superstition: _Stone axes are called _corisco_, _i. e._, flash
of lightning; when they are found they are thrown far away so as not
to attract the flash of lightning which `seeks its brother'[167][164]
..._ Catequil, the Inca god of thunder and lightning, occasionally
_turned himself into a lightning-bolt and entered a woman's womb as
she made love with her husband, at the moment of conception. Whenever
this happened, twins were born[168][165]._ Thus, the curious relation
between twins and the lightning is preserved here, too.

The Efe people in Africa say that once Lightning and Otu lived
together as brother and sister[169][166]. This may be a reflection of
the same idea. Clearer is the testimony of the Uralic Cheremiss, who
bring a common sacrifice to two gods called the lightning god and the
thunder god[170][167]. _Other sources speak separately of the gods of
Thunder and of Lightning. In such cases the Yakuts call the Thunderer
`Bold Screamer' and the Lightning-maker `the Lord with the
axe'[171][168]._ The Inuit believe that a brother and a sister _were
the source of thunder and lightning. They wished to avenge themselves
upon the adults who had reprimanded them because of their overly noisy
games. They began to produce thunder and lightning with firestones and
a dried skin[172][169] ..._ We have already seen the Australian
lightning brothers, Tcabuinji and Wagtjadbulla[173][170]. The Greek
Dioscouroi were also closely related with the phenomena of celestial
fire: _St. Elmo's fire, the electric discharge from the ship's mast
during a thunderstorm, was regarded as the corporeal epiphany of the
Dioskouroi. These sparks were called Dioskouroi, but were also
compared to stars, and so the Dioskouroi themselves were called stars
and represented with stars as an attribute[174][171]._

The motif of the lightning twins is widespread. Several of the thunder
bird gods can also be added to the list of twins. Apollo and Artemis
were twins. Indra and Agni, both of whom are associated with the
lightning, were twins[175][172]. Romulus, who was a son of Mars
(Plutarch, _Life of Romulus_, IV. 2), had a twin brother Remus.
Tangaroa and Rongo, both of whom are identified as lightning gods in
the foregoing, were twins and sons of V~tea and Papa, according to the
inhabitants of the Cook Islands[176][173]. And Tezcatlipoca and
Huitzilopochtli, too, were conceived as brothers[177][174]. Some of
these traditions are late and may be unrelated, but it is at least
remarkable that some of the great mythical Heroes are explicitly
deemed as twins.

To suggest that the twins were direct parallels to the two blades of
the double axe or the two arms or wings of the thundergod is
admittedly conjectural, but appears to make sense. So much is sure, at
least, that the concept of lightning in traditional folklore, is
associated with a doubleness _of some kind_. More evidence has to be
adduced in order to prove or disprove the point.

_the thunder stone_

The double axe and the thunder stone are inseparable ideas, the one
designation often being replaced by the other. Blinkenberg and others
have rightly assumed that the iron axe had supplanted an original
stone axe, a tool which united the concepts of a stone fallen from
heaven and a stone serving as a weapon in one. _The thunderstone falls
down from the sky in thunderstorms or, more accurately, whenever the
lightning strikes. The stroke of the lightning, according to this
view, consists in the descent of the stone: the flash and the
thunderclap are mere after-effects or secondary phenomena[178][175].
_Blinkenberg goes on to prove that thunderstones were believed to
exert healing and fertilising powers and to protect against lightning
in many parts of the world. Examples are limited to Europe,
North-Asia, Africa, China and Japan, and are lacking in Polynesia,
Australia, and America[179][176]. But witness the following Colombian
custom: _When lightning strikes nearby, the payé hurries to the spot
and examines the ground with the hope of finding some chips of
translucent quartzite, the splinters of the thunderbolt of the enemy
... The quartz crystals scattered by lightning which the payé collects
are interpreted as drops of semen[180][177] ..._ These crystals
exercise a similar fructifying effect as attested in Europe. Recall
also the sacred red stone Wabina, named after the hawk Bina, which is
held in high esteem by the aboriginals of San Cristoval, near the
Solomons[181][178]. Admittedly, there is no explicit connection with
the lightning, but the complete identity of the imagery can hardly be
coincidence. The abstruse notion of a stone falling with the lightning
is found in Australia's Northern Territory too: the lines emanating
from Narrangem and Naldaluk, the lightning spirits, in a recent work
of Aboriginal art are said to _represent smooth stones made by
lightning striking the ground[182][179]_. The geographical spread zone
identified by Blinkenberg probably represents no real situation, based
as it is on shortage of available material at the time of his work.

The stone believed to descend in the lightning is a nearly universal
idea, really. The Maya depicted the Cauac Monster as the expression of
the divine life of lightning or stone, lightning and stone being the
same word _cauac[183][180]_. The Greek word _keraunia_, used for a
particular stone, is formed from the same stem as _keraunos_, the name
of Zeus' thunderbolt[184][181]. The rare coal found under the mugwort
plant at noon or midnight on Midsummer Eve will, if carried on the
person, protect from lightning[185][182]. _Lastly, it is said that
close inspection of any site where lightning has struck may be
rewarded by the discovery of `Devil's pebbles' or `lightning stones',
fragments in the shape of hatchets or arrowheads that have their own
magical properties[186][183]._ In ancient Italy _particular rites of
purification were performed at the place where the lightning had
struck and where it was thought to remain under the surface in the
form of a small stone: this sacred place was called _bidental _in
Latin[187][184]_.

The stone descending in the lightning is often identified as a
gemstone of exquisite beauty. This adds the notion of a shining
brilliance to the archetype, which is, of course, in full accord with
the brightness of the lightning flash itself. In a part of Denmark,
f_ingerstones were called thunder-arrows or thunderbolts, and were
supposed to fall down in a thunderstorm and to contain a diamond
inside[188][185]. The root of the name _vajra _means hard, strong;
_vajra _is equivalent to diamond, but is also a name for plants
containing a milky juice (euphorbia)[189][186]._ _Thus in India, for
instance, _vajra_, both `lightning' and `diamond' (symbolizing
universal sovereignty, incorruptibility, absolute reality, etc.),
passed from Agni to Indra and later to Buddha[190][187]._ _Several
ancient imitations of stone-age axes in semi-precious stones
(cornelian, agate, amethyst) are extant, presumably of the Roman
period[191][188] ..._ In China gemstones are sometimes called
`dragon's eggs': when they split, lightning, thunder and darkness come
out, after which the young dragon ascends into heaven[192][189].
Hebrew _b__~__r__~__q_, `lightning', and Hebrew _b__~__reqet_,
`emerald, precious stone', are clearly derived from the same root
_*brq_, `to flash, particularly of lightning'[193][190]. The latter
word is somehow related to Sanskrit _markata_ and Greek _máragdos_,
_zmáragdos_, which yielded our word `smaragd'. That these words belong
to the same group is certain, but from which language Sanskrit and
Greek borrowed is uncertain; probably from a Semitic tongue. _... in
manchen Gegenden der Schweiz werde der Kristall von den Leuten
`Strahlstein' genannt, da sie überzeugt seien, er falle vom Blitz
herab oder werde durch ihn _erzeugt[194][191]. In the seventh level of
his imitation of heaven king Hiram _had diamonds and pearls, which he
manipulated so as to produce the effect of flashes and sheets of
lightning[195][192], ..._ The same combination of meanings occurred in
Latin _Gemma Cerauniae, _lightning - literally the Jewel of Ceraunus,
the lightning god[196][193]. The notion of radiance may also be the
underlying factor in the identification of sea-urchins with the
thunderstone, a practice found in Jutland, Denmark[197][194].

The hurling of the stone was usually conceived of as the
responsibility of a celestial god, who likewise threw the lightning
and produced the thunder. _At Rome the sluices of heaven were opened
by means of a sacred stone, and the ceremony appears to have formed
part of the ritual of Jupiter Elicius, the god who elicits from the
clouds the flashing lightning and the dripping rain[198][195]._ On
Tius' weapon: _Die Waffe des Gottes ist in älteste Zeiten ein
dreikantiger Stein oder Hammer_[199][196]_ ..._ Thor threw his hammer
Mjöllnir, which _is most easily explained as the thunderbolt, which,
in German superstition, was an essential part of the lightning flash,
and believed to be a black wedge which buried itself in the
earth[200][197] ..._ _The belemnite is called _Perkuno akmu _(_i.e.
_Perkun's stone or Thunderstone)[201][198] ... The peasants in the
province of Minsk call the lightning `Perun's _arrows'[202][199]_._
The Maruts _hold lightning in their hands ... they delight in
lightnings and cast a stone[203][200]._ On Indra it says: _Thou
hurlest forth from heaven the iron missile_, which is the _vajra_ (Rig
Veda I:121:9). Indra's _vajrá-_ is usually described as _ayasa-_,
`metallic', but sometimes as _parvata-_, a `rock'. It is also
frequently paired with the epithet _adrivant_, `possessing stones or a
stone'. And _parvata_ was the primordial hill which congealed within
the waters of chaos. Words denoting the primordial hill, _girikantaka_
and _adrivat_, are also given to Indra's missile[204][201]. _Some
peoples interpret lightning as God's instrument by means of which he
punishes people or accomplishes his intentions. This concept is held
by the Bachwa, Bambuti, Elgeyo, Ila, Lango, Nuer, Shona, Tonga, and
Zulu[205][202]. _Among the Ashanti in Ghana, _Lightning, Nyame's
thunderbolts, is called God's axes[206][203]_. _The Dinka of Sudan
associated their deity, Deng, with rain, thunder, and lightning ... He
used lightning as his club[207][204]._ In Australia, the hurler of the
lightning was called Wambeen[208][205], Kohin[209][206], or
Mamaragon[210][207]. In Kambodja Preas Eyn, who is said to correspond
to Indra, hurls bolts of lightning[211][208]. _Chacs or Tlalocs
brandished lightning in the form of resplendent arms, stone or bronze
axes[212][209] ..._ _K'awil is always shown in Maya art at the very
moment he takes a divine lightning hit. He wears the X-ray vision
obsidian mirror on his forehead and lightning in the form of a smoking
celt (or axhead)[213][210] ..._ Tius, Perkunas, Perun and Indra are
acknowledged representatives of the Heroic archetype: they share an
impressive nucleus of common themes, other than the ones mentioned.
Jupiter belongs in this context as well. The work of Cochrane suggests
that the Martian archetype relates directly to the planet Mars.

The idea of the hurler of the thunder stone competes with the equally
archaic, if not older notion of the god who is hurled down as
lightning or as a stone himself. First of all, numerous divinities the
world over are believed to be present in the lightning or to
constitute the lightning with their own body, serving as
personifications of the lightning_ _in a very real sense._ _Catequil,
the Inca god of thunder and lightning, _occasionally turned himself
into a lightning-bolt[214][211]_ ..._ _The people in Brazil _have no
proper name to express God, but they say the Tupan is the thunder and
lightning[215][212] ..._ Among the Maya, the dog is a god of death and
lightning; who fell from heaven[216][213]. The Cauac Monster, already
mentioned, sometimes _depicted lightning itself. At other times it
depicted the places where lightning struck[217][214] ..._ And _the
Maidu Indians of California believe that a Great Man created the world
and all its inhabitants, and that lightning is nothing but the Great
Man himself descending swiftly out of heaven, and rending the trees
with his flaming arm[218][215]._ In the cosmogony of the Skidi Pawnee,
Lightning is a servant of the highest god Tirawa[219][216].

The people on Mangaia, Polynesia, tell a story in which it _became
evident that these flashes of light had come from the face and body of
Ngaru, being in reality the dazzling fairness of his skin[220][217]._
In New Zealand Te Uira is a personification of lightning, _a deity
known in Hawaii as Kahuila-o-ka-lani (Maori Te Uira-o-te-Rangi - the
Lightning-flash of Heaven); Te Kanapu is another name for
lightning[221][218] ..._

Leza, a god attested among the Luba, Bemba, and related peoples in
Africa, _is sometimes identified with the lightning or the
rain[222][219]. _With the Wachago people in Lower Congo _thunder and
lightning are often spoken of as one_ and are called Nzasi[223][220].
_The Nuer think of God as being in the lightning[224][221] ... Thus,
the Bambuti consider the rainbow and lightning to be God's vassals
dwelling in heaven. They say that `the lightning is a person, the
rainbow a serpent.'[225][222]_ Shango, the Yoruba god with the double
axe on his head, was _a lightning-bolt in human form, and when he was
angry fire-arrows shot from every orifice and burst through his
skin[226][223]. There are those who, including the Bambuti,
Banyarwanda, Igbo and Yoruba, personify lightning as a divinity or
other living creature[227][224]._ _Ngai is also revered as supreme god
by the Bantu Kikuyu people: he lives in heaven, and lightning is
visible evidence of his presence[228][225]._

In Islamic cosmology the body of the angel Ha'il is described as
consisting half of pure fire, _from which God makes lightning
(_barq_)_, and half of ice[229][226]. Jesus said: _I beheld Satan
fallen as lightning from heaven _(Gospel of Luke 10:18). The Iranian
Yima _was born in a pillar of fire as a bolt of lightning from
heaven[230][227]._ Significantly, his name stems from a
Proto-Indo-European root meaning `twin'; it is distantly related to
Latin _geminus_. Batraz _went to heaven, where he lived from that time
on, never leaving except to `fall' (literally) onto earth, in the
manner of lightning ... The sword is still in the sea, the Ossets
think, and when they see lightning in the western sky, they attribute
the flash to Batraz's sword leaping from the sea toward the
sky[231][228]._ _V__~__zishta (`Best-Carrying') is the aerial fire,
the lightning that purifies the sky and slays the demon
Spenjaghrya[232][229]._

In India too several gods appear to have been manifestations of the
lightning. Berriedale Keith is inclined to see the lightning as the
original nature of Trita: _The parallelism points strongly to his
identification with the lightning which is born among the waters, as
his second name, __}__ptya (`Watery'), indicates[233][230] ..._ Ap~m
Nap~t _is born likewise from heaven in the form of lightning[234][231]
... _Agni is undoubtedly the best known personification of lightning
in India. _Nevertheless, traces of his_ _earlier nature still exist:
he is the lightning in the clouds, he hides within the
_Ñam§_-wood[235][232], ... The myth, too, of the descent of fire from
heaven to earth, due undoubtedly to the actual observation of
conflagrations caused by the stroke of lightning, implies the identity
of the celestial Agni and lightning[236][233]._ And _it is said that
Brahman is lightning. It is called lightning because it cleaves. He
who knows that lightning is Brahman cleaves sin, for Brahman is
lightning_ (BU V, 7, ix)[237][234]. And elsewhere: _`Who is Indra? Who
is Praj__~__pati?' `The thunder is Indra, the sacrifice is
Praj__~__pati.' `What is thunder?' `Lightning.' `What is sacrifice?'
`The victim.'_ (BU III, 9, 6)[238][235]. Thompson discerns the motif
of the transformation from man to lightning in India[239][236].

_That the lightning was worshipped as a god in several of the Greek or
semi-Greek cities of Asia is quite evident; it is shown very clearly
by the coins given by Usener in his _Götternamen_, p. 286[240][237],
..._ Zeus himself is, apart from his role as the hurler of lightning,
described as a manifestation of the lightning: _A direct epiphany of
Zeus is lightning; wherever it strikes, a sanctuary is set up to Zeus
Descending, _Kataibates[241][238]. _ZEUS CATAEBATES was a surname of
Zeus as the god who descends in thunder and lightning[242][239].
Certain it is that, like some savages, both Greeks and Romans
identified their great god of the sky and of the oak with the
lightning flash which struck the ground; and they regularly enclosed
such a stricken spot and treated it thereafter as sacred[243][240]._
_At Mantineia and Olympia he was the lightning itself and not the
directing agent, and with the poets he is the `Mighty Thunderer' and
the `Hurler of Lightning'[244][241]._ Hermes is also described as
lightning[245][242].__

_ _

The same idea of a god inherent in the lightning is, finally, also
found in northern Europe. _Thjalfi, the swift-runner, is so swift that
only Hugi or thought can beat him. Hence he may be a personification
of lightning[246][243]._ _Loki is a creation of the storm which, in
lightning, brings down fire on the wooded isle[247][244]._

Thus, there is overwhelming evidence for a god coming down in the
lightning and for a god hurling a stone in the lightning. If there is
any consistency in myth, the god personifying lightning would have to
appear as a stone. And that is indeed what happens to be the case.
_Agni is also called the `son of the rock' ..., which can hardly refer
to anything but the lightning which issues from the cloud
mountain[248][245] ..._ _Near Gythion, in Laconia, in the early ages
there was an unwrought stone which in the dialect of the district, was
called Zeus Kappotas[249][246]._ _In Rome ... Juppiter Feretrius ...
was also worshipped under the name of _Juppiter Lapis _(_i. e.
_Juppiter in the guise of a stone). In this place was kept a
cult-object which is referred to in literature by the name of _lapis_,
_lapis silex _or _saxum silex[250][247]_ ..._  _JUPITER LAPIS, `the
stone', was a surname of Jupiter at Rome. The pebble or flint stone
was regarded as the symbol of lightning[251][248]._ Assur was
worshiped as an upright stone[252][249]. Yahweh, the Israelite storm
god, was compared to a stone or rock[253][250]. And Rongo, who is
deemed _Lono of the flashing eyes_ in Hawaii, is represented by stones
set up in the fields or by a double-formed stone[254][251].

The double stone associated with Rongo is matched by other duplicated
lightning-stones. Before the sanctuary of Baal Sapon stood two rocks,
one in the form of a man, the other in the form of a woman[255][252].
Quartz crystals were associated with the lightning by the Pueblo
Indians: _The Pueblos knew that by rubbing two of them together a glow
would be produced in the dark: the so-called lightning
stone[256][253]._ _The peoples of the Altai say that lightning and
thunder follow when the dragon strikes two stones against each other,
of which one is in its mouth, the other in its hand[257][254]._ The
double stone corresponds to the double axe and to the twin motif.

There is thus no doubt that the mythical record acknowledges both gods
hurling the lightning and gods descending in the lightning. These gods
are, moreover, identical and their roles are interchangeable. A
similar situation is encountered in the motif of the sword or spear
god: traditional sword-bearers are often identified with the sword
itself and venerated as such. In his form of Anhur, Shu is represented
as the war god and symbolised by the sword or spear[258][255]. The
Scythians worshiped Ares or Mars in the form of a scimitar (Herodot
4:62; Solinus). _The Alani had no temple, but fixed a naked sword
(gladius) in the ground with barbaric rites and worshiped it as Mars,
the chief of the steppes through which they roamed_ (Ammianus
Marcellinus, 31.2.23). Apollo was symbolised by swords[259][256]. And
Chinese dragons sometimes adopted the forms of weapons[260][257].

The resulting archetypal image of the lightning is that of a radiating
orb to which two symmetrically opposed appendages are attached. The
radiating orb is described as a stone, as a gemstone or as the god
himself and is sometimes placed on top of a pillar. The appendages are
interpreted as wings, arms, two blades of an axe or a twin aspect in
the divinity. The being as a whole is symbolised as a bird, as a
weapon or as a god. It descends from heaven to earth along the Axis
Mundi.

_the lightning garment_

In the image of the gemstone in the lightning, the radiation of the
stone is identical with the lightning flashes. Thus, in a way, the
radiation envelops the stone itself, just as the glorious image of
Shekinah enveloped God in the theorems of metaphysical Judaism and
just as the lightning-producing wings were attached to the body of the
bird. This aspect of the symbolism is crucial in an understanding of
the nature of the _lightning garment_.

Several divinities are believed to be clad in lightning, peculiar as
the notion may seem in relationship to an average lightning flash. The
M~ori-god Ta-whaki sat down on the top of a mountain and clothed
himself in lightning[261][258]. _The Lebir people say that lightning
is the reflection _(bayang) _of Gobar's red loincloth, or of his red
shirt which he borrowed from the _hala' kelkül_ fruit (a fruit that is
red when ripe) who formerly lived on Batu Keñam[262][259]._ Viracocha,
one of the most famous gods of the Inca, _dressed in shining garments
which gave off the flashes of lightning when he whirled his sling when
he wanted it to rain[263][260]._ He seems to have been a double of
Illapa or Ilyap'a, who _was thought of as a man in shining clothes,
with a club in one hand and a sling for throwing stones in the other;
when he threw a stone, the crack of his sling was the thunder, and the
reflection from his clothes were the lightning[264][261]._ _In Navajo
mythology the war-god, Nayenezrani, is clad all in flint, and from the
joints of his flint armor flash the four lightnings, hurling his
enemies down into the earth[265][262]. _Nayanezgani was one of the
lightning brothers. _Ap__~__m nap__~__t, who is golden, is clothed in
lightning, ... and is identified with Agni, appears to represent the
lightning form of Agni which is concealed in the cloud[266][263] ..._
And we see _Agni clad with the lightning in the clouds[267][264]._ The
Mexican figure Xipe Totec is likewise bestowed with a shining garment:
_`Put on thy disguising, the golden garment; clothe thyself with it,'
a poet sang to the god Xipe Totec[268][265]._ Thunder is a man who
wears a rabbitskin, say the Atsugewi Indians in California[269][266].

The unity of all these ideas surrounding the lightning, which are
preposterous in a supposed reference to the lightning _we_ are
familiar with, is proven by the interwovenness of the lightning robe
with the twin motif, as in the Navaho religion, with the stone motif,
as in the case of Agni, and with the bird motif, as in the case of
Xipe Totec._ _That the lightning dress in all these instances may
really be seen as a luminous piece of cloth is clear in comparison
with other traditions, in which the lightning is directly compared to
a skin or piece of cloth. Athene stripped Pallas of the _aegis_, a
goat-skin with marvelous powers, such as the ability to generate
lightning (Iliad I:202)[270][267]. And in Bern, Switzerland, it is
said that _gegen B.schlag, ..., muß man bei einem Gewitter ein
Leintuch mit drei Zipfeln unter die Dachtraufe halten_[271][268]_, ..._

The significance of the garment of the mythological Hero has been
overlooked in foregoing generations of researchers for unclear
reasons. Tammuz was dressed in a red robe, although no direct
connection with the lightning or fire is given. Nusku, another
Mesopotamian deity, is _he who hurls down terror, whose clothing is
splendour_ and he is called _forceful fire god_, _uplifter of the
torch, enlightener of darkness_ and _the bearer of the brilliant
sceptre[272][269]_. It is as if Agni is being described in these
words.

From a comparative approach it must follow that the Hero decked in his
garment is an image of the Hero covered by the Mother Goddess, the
garment being one of the goddess' widespread images. This follows
basically from four different lines of evidence.

In the first place, the Mother Goddess is explicitly described as a
garment. The deceased king proclaims in the Pyramid Texts: _My kilt
which is on me is Hathor[273][270]. I am girt with the girdle of
Horus, I am clad with the garment of Thoth, Isis is before me and
Nephthys is behind me[274][271]_. In the wake of Tammuz' death, his
sister Gestinanna _cried toward heaven, cried toward earth. (Her)
cries covered the horizon completely like a cloth and were spread out
like linen_ (Dumuzi's Dream)[275][272]. Istar too _is clothed with
fire and bears aloft a crown of awful splendor_
(Assurbanipal)[276][273]. Interestingly, Semele was weaving a cloak
when Zeus appeared to her as an impregnating lightning flash. And
during his stay in the underworld Dionysus wore Persephone's purple
robe[277][274].

In the second place, the mythological Hero often dresses himself in
women's clothes. The travestite Hero is a widespread phenomenon in
several completely different aspects of religion, such as shamanism,
temple ceremonials, New Year festivals and Heroic myth. Significantly,
even the prime examples of Heroes - such as Heracles and Susanowo -
are associated with traditions of cross-dressing. In the service of
Aphrodite-Astarte are male travestites[278][275]. _On the island of
Kos sacrifice was made to Heracles by a priest wearing woman's
clothing, and the story was told that Heracles himself had once
concealed himself in such garments[279][276]._ _This is paralleled in
the story of Achilles, who is hidden in girl's clothing among the
daughters of Lycomedes on the island of Skyros until at the sight of
weapons or the sound of the trumpet he proves his manly
nature[280][277] _... Theseus, _arriving in Athens at the temple of
Apollo Delphinios, is ridiculed as a girl until he throws off his long
_chiton _and hurls the sacrificial bull high into the air, higher than
the roof of the temple[281][278]._ _It is particularly uncanny to see
how Pentheus, already lost, arrays himself in Dionysian attire with
the long, womanly robe, the very image of the effeminate Dionysos
himself[282][279]. _ _In accordance with this, as it is said, Odysseus
stripped off his clothes during the tempest and wearing the veil of
Leukothea jumped into the sea which could no longer do him any
_harm[283][280]. Cross-dressing is part of the festivities during the
feasts of fertility all over Europe and India[284][281]. Coyote donned
himself as a woman with the body parts of an elk. After intercourse
with the fox, the jaybird and the nit he married the chief's son and
gave birth to four boys. [Campbell, _Primitive mythology_: 269].

In the third place, the Hero is frequently described as an androgynous
being. The original, archetypal Hero combined both sexes in his body,
as if to show both his all-encompassingness and his non-human nature.
Several of the most ancient gods in Egypt were bisexual[285][282].
Tammuz, Enki and Ninurta have androgynous aspects[286][283]. Bel and
Belit may originally have been an androgynous god[287][284]. Adam was
originally androgynous: _Adam and Eve were made back to back, attached
at their shoulders; then God separated them with an axe, or cut them
in two. Others have a different picture: the first man, Adam, was a
man on his right side, a woman on his left; but God split him into two
halves_ (Bereshit Rabbah I. 1, fol. 6, col. 2)[288][285]. Certain
authors have offered the hypothesis of an androgynous Istar[289][286].
Astart may appear in a masculine form, sometimes with the
characteristics of the masculine sex[290][287]. In South-Arabia too
Atar probably was a hermaphroditic god[291][288]. The designation
`duplex Amathusia' for Aphrodite of Amathus (Catullus 68. 51) stems
from the double sex of the Cyprian deity. She was represented in art
with a beard[292][289]. Cyprian Aphrodite had a beard and a generally
male character, but she wore female vestments; she was called
variously _Aphroditos, deus Venus, barbata Venus_ (Macrobius,
_Saturnalia Convivia_, 3.8.10-11). _The bisexuality of the
Near-Eastern Aphrodite-Astarte lies in the background. Thus Hermes and
Aphrodite could even be fused into the bisexual figure of
Hermaphroditos[293][290] _... Eros was bisexual[294][291]. Kronos is
given the title Man-Woman[295][292] (Great Magical Papyrus of Paris).
Attis, Adonis, Dionysos and Cybele were all bisexual[296][293], and so
was Plato's `first man', who had a spherical body (Plato,
_Symposium_)[297][294]. _For the two spouses (Parvati and Shiva) are
in reality but one and the same person. Parvati, whatever the name she
may bear, is only the __Sakti_, the materialised energy of the god
himself[298][295]. Thus, Ðiva-K~l§ is represented as a single being in
the form of _ardhanar__§Ñ__vara[299][296]_. Dyaus, the ancient sky,
was androgynous, and so was Purusha, the primeval man (Rig-Veda X.
90)[300][297]. The Germanic figures of Odin, Loki, Tuisco and Nerthus
all preserve traces of androgyny[301][298]. The Iranian god of time,
Zurv~n, was androgynous[302][299]. The Chinese knew of a
hermaphroditic Supreme Divinity, who was the god of darkness and
light[303][300]. Australian and Oceanic aboriginals claim bisexuality
for the first man[304][301]. Quetzalcoatl has androgynous
aspects[305][302]. And there is in fact much, much more. _In the
androgyne, the Yin and the Yang combined in the Chinese holy woman
T'ai Yuan, the Zuni Indian chief god Awonawilona who is he-she, the
child of Hermes and Aphrodite, Hermaphrodite, and in Eros himself, who
is both male and female[306][303] ..._ As the woman is always the
enveloping aspect in the symbolism of the combined sexes, women
wearing male dress being a rarity[307][304], it may be assumed that
the masculine part of the Hero was included in the feminine part -
regardless how such is to be interpreted in a more concrete way.

In the fourth place, practically all forms taken by the Hero and all
deeds performed by him are in other traditions ascribed to the
goddess. In a reconstruction of the archetypal myth this can only mean
that the Hero and the Mother Goddess were in conjunction when the
forms in case were assumed and the deeds in case acted out.

The conjunction of the Hero and the Mother Goddess is one of the major
themes in the archetypal myths, which is expressed in a thousand
different ways. The Hero wearing the Mother Goddess as a garment is
one of these ways. In the symbolism of the gemstone she is the
radiating glory issuing from the stone. And in the symbolism of the
thunder bird she will turn out to be the feather-skin with which the
Hero donned himself. Hero-myths abound with Heroes who dress
themselves with the feathers of a bird. Ne-kil-stlas, the Raven of the
Haida Indians, `could put his coat of feathers on or off at
will'[308][305]. The garment is often prepared by a girl or a goddess,
who had been _spinning_ it for him. Direct confirmation comes from
those myths in which the Hero enters the body of the Mother Goddess,
as is done by Maui and Hanuman, for instance.

A common version of the garment-motif is the animal hide worn by the
Hero. The Egyptian dwarf Bes is shown with a lion-skin draped about
his shoulders, its tail extending down along the god's back and
protruding between his legs[309][306]. Gilgames was depicted wearing
the skin of a lion[310][307]. On Mesopotamian seals a hero dressed in
lion skins is shown engaged in what has been called `the liberation of
the sun-god from his mountain grave'[311][308]. Rudra was clothed in a
skin[312][309]. Heracles was depicted with the pelt of a lion slung
across his head, its tail extending down his back[313][310]. The man
who performed the part of Mamurius Veturius or the `Old Mars' in the
Roman ritual was clad in skins (Joannes the Lydian, _De mensibus_
3:29, 4:36-49), and the same thing is found with Tibetan
scapegoats[314][311]. Finn's propensity for dressing in the pelts of
wild animals earned him the epithet _Lad of the skins[315][312]_.
There are many interesting aspects to pursue in this context, one of
them being the shapeshifting power of the Hero: as soon as the Hero
dons himself in the skin of an animal, he magically transforms himself
into the animal in question.

The Hero's skin is often a wolf skin. In Babylonia, the planet Mars
was known as the _wolf-star[316][313]._ _Now, the dog was in India
associated with Indra[317][314]._ Apollo _Lykeios_ was understood as a
wolf god[318][315]. Zeus _Lykaios_ was a wolf to whom human sacrifice
was offered[319][316]. The _lupus Martius_, the `Martian wolf', was
the famous symbol of Mars (Virgil, Livy, XXII. 1. 12). One of
Tezcatlipoca's favourite forms was the coyote[320][317]. The Maya god
Xulab was both the Morning Star and the hunting dog[321][318]. The
Maya frequently depict the dog as `carrying a torch, perhaps a
reference to the Maya tradition that the dog brought fire to
mankind'[322][319]. The North-American Coyote was a great culture
Hero[323][320]. Examples can be added _ad infinitum_, it seems.

Significantly, the animal forms adopted by the dressed Hero appear on
different continents as manifestations of the lightning. We have
already seen that the Maya pictured the lightning god as a dog who
fell from heaven: _His body is often in human form, carrying a torch
in each hand[324][321] ..._ As if to confirm the stellar origin of the
image, the thunder dog is at times _dotted with spots to represent
stars[325][322] ..._ This certainly does not make any sense if no
connection with a celestial body is allowed. _The Bakairi Indians of
Central Brazil allege that in the early days of the world the Lord of
Fire was the animal which naturalists call _Canis vetulus[326][323]._
_The Tinguian people of the Philippines believed that Kadaklan, the
thunder god, _lived in a tree with his dog Kimat, lightning, and sent
him to bite people he disliked[327][324]._ _However, in other parts of
British New Guinea the dog is said to figure in most stories as the
animal which brought the first fire to _men[328][325]. _The Sia
Indians of New Mexico say that they procured fire from the
coyote[329][326] ..._ _In the Congo, it was believed that lightning
was a magic dog that gave a sharp bark[330][327]._ _The Shilluk of the
White Nile relate how, ..., they swathed the tail of a dog in straw
and sent him to fetch fire from the land of the Great Spirit; the dog
returned with his tail ablaze, and ever since the Shilluk have had
fire[331][328]._ European superstition has it that wet dogs attract
lightning[332][329]. And the plant _Euphorbia_, which is identified
with Indra's _vajrá-_ in India[333][330], is called `wolf's milk'
among the Germanic peoples. The Chinese have preserved a fairly
complete picture of the thunder dog: _The Chinese `celestial dog' is
similarly a thunder and lightning deity, and there are many references
to it in the Chinese books, including the following: `When dark clouds
covered the sky everywhere at night, a noise of thunder was heard in
the north ... This was what people call a descent of the celestial dog
...'[334][331]._ The stellar origin of the thunder dog has clearly
been preserved in China: _`It has a shape of a large moving star, and
produces a noise. When it descends and reaches the earth it resembles
a dog[335][332].'_ This dog-star descended in an outburst of fire:
_`Whatever it falls upon becomes a flaming fire; it looks like a fiery
light, like flames flaming up to heaven[336][333] ...'_ The dog-star
is thus identified as the bringer of fire upon earth. Now, to the
Chinese, only the planet Mars was associated with the phenomena of
fire[337][334].

We have already seen that Bes, Gilgames and Heracles donned themselves
with lion skins. Feline forms of the Hero are found all over the
globe. As the _lord of battle_ Sept is depicted in the form of a
hawk-headed lion with the tails of a lion and a hawk, and in his
hands, which are those of a man, he holds a bow and a club (Book of
the Dead and elsewhere)[338][335]. Tammuz and Ningirsu were shown as
an eagle with a lion's head[339][336]. Iskur, the Sumerian prototype
of Hadad, and Ninurta, were associated with the _imdugud_, the
thunderbird with lion's head[340][337]. Nergal is called _lion clad in
splendor, at the flaring-up of whose fierce brilliance, the gods of
the inhabited world took to secret places[341][338]_. And elsewhere,
Nergal is invoked as _[lion] with gaping maw, marauding lion monster,
who takes his place nobly in the height of heaven, [who holds]
lordship, whose features ever glow in heaven ... [O Nergal, warrior]
of the gods, long of arms, whose divine splendor is sublime in heaven,
[star] ever shining, sublime of features[342][339]_. ViÑnu had an
avatar with a lion's head[343][340]. In China too the male tiger was a
war god[344][341]. Xipe Totec was a tiger[345][342], and Quetzalcoatl
had a jaguar form[346][343]. Cucumatz had a snake form, an eagle form
and a tiger form[347][344]. In one of his forms Tezcatlipoca was
called _One Jaguar_ and jaguars were associated with the eclipse and
were the patrons of magicians[348][345].

Cochrane has shown that at least Bes, Gilgames, Heracles, Sept, Nergal
and Tezcatlipoca represent one and the same archetypal being, which is
to be identified with the planet Mars. Interestingly, several of these
gods display features strongly reminiscent of what we learned about
lightning gods. The association with splendour and glory on the one
hand and with a bird-head on the other hand is particularly strong.
The coexistence of feline and avian forms of the warrior-god is
manifest in the manifold composite animals, exhibiting features of
both. The Chinese thunder dogs, for instance, are also birds: _The
dogs are mentioned `as a kind of badgers living in the mountains, or
as birds or plants ..., or dragons[349][346].'_ This and a wealth of
material really binds the thunder bird and the thunder dog together in
a unified being, a being which is quite clearly identified as the
planet Mars and the mythical Hero. All this goes to prove that there
really is a consistent archetypal pattern at work in the imagery
surrounding the mythical Hero. The circle comes full round when it is
seen that the lightning is also directly connected with lions, cats,
tigers and other members of the _Felidae_.

_According to the Matacos Indians of the Gran Chaco, the jaguar was in
possession of fire and guarded it before man had procured it for
himself[350][347]. _The Tukano Indians in the Amazonia associate the
lightning _with the jaguar because of its fertilizing power and its
`roar'[351][348]._ _The names Hillacunya, Chuquicunya for the puma
skins mean `lightning _(illa) _thunderclap_ (cumya) _and `golden
_(choque) _thunderclap'[352][349] ..._ Thus, the Inca preserved the
idea of lightning issuing from the puma skin in its clearest
expression. The Kauri Indians in Peru describe Ccoa _as a large cat,
standing about eighteen inches high, with phosphorescent eyes. It is
he who brings lightning and hail, which is his method of stealing the
crops near harvest time[353][350]_. _Myths from the forest tribes show
that they associate the jaguar with thunder and lightning. According
to W. La Barre, the chief Aymara god was one of thunder and lightning,
although what form it took is obscure. The modern Quechua believe in a
Ccoa which brings lightning and hail. He is a striped gray cat with a
big head. Hail runs out of his eyes[354][351]._ The idea is not
limited to South-America. The Kakwa in Sudan have a story in which
_Lightning_, a being who lives in the sky, has _the body of a calf
with the face and teeth of a lion[355][352]._ And the Bushongo know
that _Bumba created ... the lightning (a beast like a black
leopard)[356][353]_. The Japanse Raisu, a demon whose name means
`thunder animal', has the shape of a cat, badger or weasel[357][354].
Even German peasants retained the connection: _Eine in drei Farben
blitzende Katze (...) nennt man Blitzkatze. Sie steht in dem Ruf, den
B.schlag fernzuhalten_[358][355]_._

The mythical record confirms the hypothesis on all fronts. The
lightning is variously described as a garment decking the god, as a
feline being, and as a canine being. These sets of traditions are to
be connected with the motifs of the feline and the canine Hero, which
are Heroes decked in pelts and hides. It has been proposed that the
key to tie all these concepts together is the figure of the Mother
Goddess, who covers the Hero in the form of a garment or animal skin.

Mars the lightning god

Closer scrutiny of a small number of mythical motifs - thunder bird,
double axe, lightning twins, thunder stone, lightning garment - has
revealed a number of remarkable conclusions, which have hitherto never
been acknowledged by students of ancient religion. First, it appears
that traditional lightning lore is completely inconsistent with the
modern-day phenomenon of lightning, however that may be explained.
Second, the images share a common archetypal symbolism and often
overlap each other, thus confirming their coherence and the intricate
interwovenness of mythical motifs. An old verse relating to the Mayan
deity Cucumatz, for instance, actually neatly summarises the
archetypal reconstruction defended here:

_`In seven days he took upon himself the nature and form of a serpent,
and again of an eagle, and of a tiger; and in seven days he changed
himself into coagulated blood[359][356].'_

Third, all of these motifs are mirrored in the mythical biography of
the Hero, who is likewise acting as a bird, appearing in twin form,
hurling clubs and hammers, and decked in special garments. Often when
these associations are obscure or not apparent the Hero is
nevertheless associated with lightning in a direct way. _From these
considerations it becomes very plain that Vahagn is a fire and
lightning god, born out of the stalk in the heavenly (?) sea, with the
special mission among other beneficent missions, to slay
dragons[360][357]_. Vahagn is the Armenian version of the dragon
slayers Thra`taona and Indra. Some of the most ancient and central of
these Heroes are identified with the planet Mars and it is strongly
suspected that the complex of the mythical Hero as a whole may
originally refer to the forms and movements of the red planet.

If so, the intimate connection of the planet Mars with Venus may not
be overlooked. It has been seen that the archetypal referent of the
lightning consists of a conjunction of the Hero and the Mother
Goddess, the former being enclosed by the latter. As a mantle around
the Hero the Mother Goddess was identified as his attire of feathers,
his bright garment, and his animal skin. Two extensions were
particularly conspicuous in the apparition, which were interpreted as
arms, wings or the two blades of an axe. If the connection with the
planet Mars is to be maintained, which sounds like outright blasphemy
to conservative scholars, the conjunction with Venus anterior to
descent must be accounted for. Is it possible that igneous phenomena
in the fashion of lightning once manifested themselves in connection
with the planets Mars and Venus? Is it possible that electrical
discharges between the planets Mars and Venus are the original basis
of reference for the mythical lightning? The edifice of myth certainly
suggests so, but we leave it to physicists and astronomers, who are
more able than ourselves to address this complicated issue.

_______________________

[361][1]Although it has been shown in recent years that some of the
most notable Heroes, such as Heracles, Gilgames and Indra, are
identifiable as the planet Mars, it is unwise to designate every
mythical Hero for this reason as `Mars' as long as solid evidence for
the identification with the red planet is not found.

[362][2]Sir B. Schonland, _The flight of thunderbolts_, Oxford, 19642:
1

[363][3]H. Scheub, _A dictionary of African mythology_, 2000: 213f. ad
`Qamatha Sends the Chameleon with a Message' (Xhosa/South Africa)

[364][4]A. Werner, `African': 237; in L. H. Gray (ed.), _The mythology
of all races_

[365][5]J. S. Mbiti, _Concepts of God in Africa_, London 1970: 7

[366][6]H. Courlander, _A treasure of African folklore_, New York,
1975: 514

[367][7]T. Andrews, _Legends of the earth, sea and sky; an
encyclopedia of nature myths_, 1998: 242 ad `Thunderbirds'

[368][8]H. R. Hays, _In the beginnings; early man and his gods_, New
York, 1963: 318

[369][9]T. Andrews, _Legends of the earth, sea and sky; an
encyclopedia of nature myths_, 1998: 130 ad `Lightning bird'

[370][10]A. Werner, `African': 237; in L. H. Gray (ed.), _The
mythology of all races_

[371][11]J. S. Mbiti, _Concepts of God in Africa_, London 1970: 140f.

[372][12]J. S. Mbiti, _Concepts of God in Africa_, London 1970: 140f.

[373][13]J. S. Mbiti, _Concepts of God in Africa_, London 1970: 95

[374][14]I. Goldziher, _Mythology among the Hebrews and its historical
development_, London 1877: 367

[375][15]M. Eliade (ed.), _The encyclopedia of religion_, I-, 1987: IX
491 ad `meteorological beings'

[376][16]M. Leach (ed.), _Standard dictionary of folklore, mythology
and legend_, 1984: 621 ad `lightning'

[377][17]H. R. Hays, _In the beginnings; early man and his gods_, New
York, 1963: 439

[378][18]H. B. Alexander, `North America': 288 note 32; in L. H. Gray
(ed.), _The mythology of all races_

[379][19]H. B. Alexander, `North America': 138; in L. H. Gray (ed.),
_The mythology of all races_

[380][20]Sir J. G. Frazer, _Folklore in the Old Testament; studies in
comparative religion, legend, and law_ (New York), 1975: 112

[381][21]S. D. Gill & I. F. Sullivan, _Dictionary of native American
mythology_, 1992: 225 ad `Onditachiae'

[382][22]Sir J. G. Frazer, _Myths of the origin of fire; an essay_,
London 1930: 211

[383][23]L. Frobenius, _Zeitalter des Sonnengottes_, 1904: 88f.

[384][24]N. B. Dennys, _The folk-lore of China, and its affinities
with that of the Aryan and Semitic races_, 1876: 121 note ^

[385][25]M. Eliade, _Patterns in comparative religion_ (New York)
1958: 290

[386][26]M. Eliade, _Patterns in comparative religion_ (New York)
1958: 276f.

[387][27]M. Eliade, _Patterns in comparative religion_ (New York)
1958: 277

[388][28]D. A. MacKenzie, _Myths of China and Japan_, 1994: 108

[389][29]H. Frankfort, _Kingship and the gods_, 1948: 37

[390][30]R. O. Faulkner, _The ancient Egyptian Pyramid Texts_, 1969:
192

[391][31]D. A. MacKenzie, _Pre-Columbian America_, 1923: ad loc;
_Myths of China and Japan_, 1994: 71; A. Baring & J. Cashford, _The
myth of the goddess; evolution of an image_, 1993: 23

[392][32]E. A. W. Budge, _From fetish to god in ancient Egypt_, 1988:
244; _The gods of the Egyptians_, II, 1969: 303

[393][33]E. A. W. Budge, _The gods of the Egyptians_, 1969, II: 656;
W. M. Müller, `Egyptian', in L. H. Gray (ed.), _The mythology of all
races_, 1964: 54f.

[394][34]D. A. MacKenzie, _South Seas_, 1930: 180

[395][35]A. Baring & J. Cashford, _The myth of the goddess; evolution
of an image_, 1993: 230; G. R. Scott, _Phallic worship; a history of
sex and sexual rites_ (1966): 15

[396][36]see various articles which have appeared in _Kronos_ and
_Aeon_

[397][37]D. A. MacKenzie, _Pre-Columbian America_, 1923: 234ff.

[398][38]Some of the most interesting examples will be given to prove
the point. _Chac often carried weapons - flames and torches and a
hafted stone axe or a serpent, Mesoamerican symbols of thunder and
lightning._ [T. Andrews, _Legends of the earth, sea and sky; an
encyclopedia of nature myths_, 1998: 38 ad `Chac[s]']. _The Aztec had
their lightning god Itzcoatl, the obsidian serpent, and the great sky
snake who accompanied Tlaloc ... _[T. Andrews, _Legends of the earth,
sea and sky; an encyclopedia of nature myths_, 1998: 128-130 ad
`Lightning']. _The Classic Period Maya interpreted K'awil's serpent
leg both as a searing bolt of spiritual lightning and as his Vision
Serpent _uay_ ... _[D. Gillette, _The shaman's secret; the lost
resurrection teachings of the ancient Maya_, 1997: 67; compare M.
Kane, _Heavens unearthed; in nursery rhymes and fairy tales_, 1999:
121]. _Another deity, associated with both the subterranean and the
celestial powers, is the Plumed Serpent, called Koloowisi by the Zuñi,
Palulukoñ by the Hopi. This god is connected both with the lightning
and with fertility: ..._ [H. B. Alexander, `North America': 188; in L.
H. Gray (ed.), _The mythology of all races_]. The Pueblo Indians
associated the female lightning with the Horned Water Serpent. [H. A.
Tyler, _Pueblo gods and myths_, 1964: 235]. _Some northern California
and southern Oregon groups believe it is the weapon of Thunder person,
issuing from his mouth `like a snake', or from his hand. _[M. Leach
(ed.), _Standard dictionary of folklore, mythology and legend_, 1984:
621 ad `lightning']. _Yulunggul is the giant serpent ... He is said to
make _lightning_ with his forked tongue and the thunder is his voice._
[Mudrooroo, _Aboriginal mythology; an A-Z spanning the history of
aboriginal mythology from the earliest legends to the present day_,
1994: 190 ad `Yulunggul']. On Taipan, a snake god: _He made thunders
and _lightning. [Mudrooroo, _Aboriginal mythology; an A-Z spanning the
history of aboriginal mythology from the earliest legends to the
present day_, 1994: 156 ad `Taipan']. _Bolung is another name for the
_rainbow snake_ among the people of the Northern Territory. Bolung
takes the form of the _lightning _bolt which heralds the approach of
the monsoon rains._ [Mudrooroo, _Aboriginal mythology; an A-Z spanning
the history of aboriginal mythology from the earliest legends to the
present day_, 1994: 19 ad `Bolung']. _Mumuna ... an alternative name
for Kunapipi, the Great Mother, and it is also one of the names given
to the Lightning Snake._ [R. Poignant, _Oceanic mythology: the myths
of Polynesia, Micronesia, Melanesia, Australia_, 1967: 133]. _The
Cherkess name for storm god is the same as their word for lightning:
Shyble, a pictorial term which literally means `horse-serpent'._ [Y.
Bonnefoy, _Mythologies_, I-II, Chicago, London, 1981: II 1113]. _The
Tatars, like many other of the peoples of the world, imagine the
lightning, which for a moment draws a livid, winding streak of light
across the sky, to be a fiery snake falling down from Heaven._ [U.
Holmberg, `Finno-Ugric, Siberian': 444f.; in L. H. Gray (ed.), _The
mythology of all races_]. Gaelic _beithir_, `monster, huge snake' is
also used for `thunderbolt'. [C. D. Buck, _A dictionary of selected
synonyms in the principal Indo-European languages_, 1949: 59]. _Auch
als Schlange, springender Geißbock und Horn wird der B. angesehen._
[H. Bächtold-Stäubli, _Handwörterbuch des deutschen Aberglaubens_, I-,
1987: I-1399, ad `Blitz']

[399][39]D. A. MacKenzie, _Pre-Columbian America_, 1923: 234ff.

[400][40]D. Duran, _Book of the gods and rites and the ancient
calendar_, 1971: 155

[401][41]D. A. MacKenzie, _Pre-Columbian America_ (New Jersey) 1923:
276

[402][42]D. A. MacKenzie, _Pre-Columbian America_, 1923: ad loc.

[403][43]A. Lang, _Myth, ritual and religion_, 1913, II: ad loc.

[404][44]D. A. MacKenzie, _Pre-Columbian America_ (New Jersey) 1923:
293

[405][45]B. Brundage, _The fifth sun: Aztec gods, Aztec world_, 1979:
148

[406][46]I. Goldziher, _Mythology among the Hebrews and its historical
development_, London 1877: 384

[407][47]A. A. MacDonell, _The Vedic mythology_, 1971: 152

[408][48]A. J. Carnoy, `Iranian': 291; in L. H. Gray (ed.), _The
mythology of all races_

[409][49]A. A. MacDonell, _The Vedic mythology_, 1971: 108, referring
to Rig Veda IX. 41. 3, 80. 1, 84. 3, 87. 8

[410][50]D. A. MacKenzie, _South Seas_, 1930: 224. MacDonell assigns
the same function to Trita }ptya: _If this interpretation be correct,
Trita's original connexion with Soma would signify the bringing of
Soma from heaven by lightning (...)._ [A. A. MacDonell, _The Vedic
mythology_, 1971: 69]

[411][51]A. A. MacDonell, _The Vedic mythology_, 1971: 112, referring
to Taittiriya Brahmana 3, 10, 5. 1, cp. 12, 1. 2

[412][52]A. Berriedale Keith, _The religion and philosophy of the Veda
and Upanishads_, I-II, 1971: I 169, referring to Rig Veda VII. 15. 4
and Taittiriya Brahmana III. 10. 5. 1

[413][53]Agrawala, _Sparks from the Vedic fire_, 52-55

[414][54]A. A. MacDonell, _The Vedic mythology_, 1971: 78f.; compare
M. Eliade, _Patterns in comparative religion_, Ohio, 19706: 85,
referring to Rig Veda I. 23. 12

[415][55]M. H. Ananikian, `Armenian': 43; in L. H. Gray (ed.), _The
mythology of all races_; D. A. MacKenzie, _South Seas_, 1930: 322

[416][56]D. A. MacKenzie, _South Seas_, 1930: 179, 223

[417][57]Oldenberg, _Vedic Hymns_: 49, 61; Coomaraswamy, _A new
approach to the Vedas_: 96 note 92b

[418][58]Sh. McGrath, _The sun goddess; myth, legend and history_,
1997: ad loc.

[419][59]D. A. MacKenzie, _South Seas_, 1930: 115

[420][60]J. Friedrich, `Agnis', in E. Ebeling & B. Meissner,
_Reallexikon der Assyriologie_, I-, 1928: I 42; thanks to E. Cochrane
for the reference

[421][61]A. A. MacDonell, _The Vedic mythology_, 1971: 111f., with
reference to Rig Veda X. 99. 8; A. Lang, _Myth, ritual and religion_,
1913: I: 9; II: ad loc.

[422][62]A. Lang, _Myth, ritual and religion_, 1913: I: 192; II: ad
loc.

[423][63]Sir J. G. Frazer, _Myths of the origin of fire; an essay_,
London 1930: 212

[424][64]Sir J. G. Frazer, _Myths of the origin of fire; an essay_,
London 1930: 210

[425][65]D. A. MacKenzie, _Teutonic myth and legend_: 22ff.

[426][66]D. N. Talbott, _The Saturn myth; a reinterpretation of rites
and symbols illuminating some of the dark corners of primordial
society_, 1980: 298; no references are given.

[427][67]H. Bächtold-Stäubli, _Handwörterbuch des deutschen
Aberglaubens_, I-, 1987: I 1409, ad `Blitz'

[428][68]Ch. Hole (ed.), _The encyclopedia of superstitions_, 19612:
63

[429][69]E. Atwood Lawrence, _Hunting the wren; transformation of bird
to symbol_, 1997: 151

[430][70]E. Atwood Lawrence, _Hunting the wren; transformation of bird
to symbol_, 1997: 36f.

[431][71]E. Atwood Lawrence, _Hunting the wren; transformation of bird
to symbol_, 1997: 152

[432][72]Sir J. G. Frazer, _The magic art and the evolution of kings_,
I-II, London, 1951: I 82

[433][73]H. Bächtold-Stäubli, _Handwörterbuch des deutschen
Aberglaubens_, I-, 1987: I 1402f., ad `Blitz'

[434][74]H. Bächtold-Stäubli, _Handwörterbuch des deutschen
Aberglaubens_, I-, 1987: I 1412f., ad `Blitz'

[435][75]H. R. Ellis Davidson, _Pagan Scandinavia_, 1967: 136

[436][76]R. Cavendish, _Mythology; an illustrated encyclopedia_, 1984:
181

[437][77]A. S. Mercatante, _The facts on file encyclopedia of world
mythology and legend_, 1988: 639 ad `Ukko'

[438][78]I. Velikovsky, _Worlds in collision_, 1950: 86; nu further
references are given

[439][79]I. Velikovsky, _Worlds in collision_, 1950: 136

[440][80]Sh. McGrath, _The sun goddess; myth, legend and history_,
1997: ad loc.

[441][81]Sh. McGrath, _The sun goddess; myth, legend and history_,
1997: ad loc.

[442][82]A. Nutt, _Cuchulainn: the Irish Achilles_, 1900: 5, cited in
E. Cochrane, _Martian metamorphoses; the planet Mars in ancient myth
and religion_, 1997: 152f.

[443][83]Sh. McGrath, _The sun goddess; myth, legend and history_,
1997: ad loc.

[444][84]Sh. McGrath, _The sun goddess; myth, legend and history_,
1997: ad loc.

[445][85]D'Arcy W. Thompson, _A Glossary of Greek Birds _(Oxford)
1895: 2, 8; O. Keller, _Thiere des classischen Alterthums in
culturgeschichtlicher Beziehung _(Innsbruck) 1887: 238 ff.; I have not
been able to check these sources.

[446][86]J. C. Cooper (ed.), _Brewer's myth and legend_, London & New
York 1992: 159 ad `Lightning preservers'

[447][87]I. Goldziher, _Mythology among the Hebrews and its historical
development_, London 1877: 368

[448][88]A. Lang, _Myth, ritual and religion_, 1913: II: ad loc; D. A.
MacKenzie, _Pre-Columbian America_, 1923: 284

[449][89]W. Roscher, _Apollon und Mars_, 1873: 51-68, cited in E.
Cochrane, _Martian metamorphoses; the planet Mars in ancient myth and
religion_, 1997: 28, 32.

[450][90]W. Roscher, `Mars', _Ausführliches Lexikon der griechischen
und römischen Mythologie_, 1965: 2412, 2426; V. Rosivach,_ _`Mars, the
lustral god', _Latomus_, 42 (1983): 520, both cited in E. Cochrane,
_Martian metamorphoses; the planet Mars in ancient myth and religion_,
1997: 186

[451][91]D. A. MacKenzie, _Pre-Columbian America_ (New Jersey) 1923:
284

[452][92]Schaumberger in Kugler, _Sternkunde_: 304; Böllenrücher,
_Gebete und Hymnen an Nergal_: 21ff.; cited in I. Velikovsky, _Worlds
in collision_, 1950: 241; I have not been able to check these sources.

[453][93]A. Lang, _Myth, ritual and religion_, 1913: I. 12; II: ad
loc; Sh. McGrath, _The sun goddess; myth, legend and history_, 1997:
ad loc.

[454][94]A. Room, _Room's classical dictionary_ (London) 1982: 333,
thanks to E. Cochrane for the reference.

[455][95]A. Lang, _Myth, ritual and religion_, 1913: II: ad loc.

[456][96]W. Roscher, `Mars', _Ausführliches Lexikon der griechischen
und römischen Mythologie_, 1965: 2408, cited in E. Cochrane, _Martian
metamorphoses; the planet Mars in ancient myth and religion_, 1997:
185

[457][97]A. Lang, _Myth, ritual and religion_, 1913: II: ad loc.

[458][98]L. M. Greenberg, `The Lord of Light', _Aeon_ III. 4 (1993): 7

[459][99]R. Graves, _The Greek myths_, I-II, 1957: I.: 70ff.

[460][100]F. Clothey, _The many faces of Murukan_, 1978: 144f.; K.
Zvelbil, `A guide to Murukan', _Journal of Tamil studies_ (1976) 9:
11; both cited in E. Cochrane, _Martian metamorphoses; the planet Mars
in ancient myth and religion_, 1997: 140 note 10

[461][101]M. Eliade, _Patterns in comparative religion_, Ohio, 1958:
64

[462][102]M. Eliade, _Patterns in comparative religion_, Ohio, 1958:
128

[463][103]T. R. Roberts, M. J. Roberts & P. Katz, _Mythology; tales of
ancient civilizations_, 1997: 415

[464][104]Sir J. G. Frazer, _Myths of the origin of fire; an essay_,
London 1930: 209

[465][105]Sir J. G. Frazer, _Myths of the origin of fire; an essay_,
London 1930: 209

[466][106]D. A. MacKenzie, _South Seas_, 1930: 354

[467][107]D. A. MacKenzie, _South Seas_, 1930: 352

[468][108]J. Andersen, _Myths and legends of the Polynesians_, 1969:
206; compare Maui's appearance as a bird in his battle with Ru, which
is a version of the raising of the sky, _ibidem_, 223

[469][109]D. A. MacKenzie, _South Seas_, 1930: 202

[470][110]D. A. MacKenzie, _South Seas_, 1930: 280

[471][111]D. A. MacKenzie, _South Seas_, 1930: 292

[472][112]M. Beckwith, _Hawaiian mythology_, 1970: 503

[473][113]D. A. MacKenzie, _South Seas_, 1930: 310

[474][114]D. A. MacKenzie, _South Seas_, 1930: 171

[475][115]R. B. Dixon, `Oceanic': 250; in L. H. Gray (ed.), _The
mythology of all races_

[476][116]L. E. Sullivan, _Icanchu's drum; an orientation to meaning
in South American religions_, 1988: 409

[477][117]Sir J. G. Frazer, _Myths of the origin of fire; an essay_,
London 1930: 125

[478][118]Sir J. G. Frazer, _Myths of the origin of fire; an essay_,
London 1930: 210

[479][119]Sir J. G. Frazer, _Myths of the origin of fire; an essay_,
London 1930: 211

[480][120]Sir J. G. Frazer, _Myths of the origin of fire; an essay_,
London 1930: 208

[481][121] J. Isaac, _Australia Dreaming_: 154; compare D. Cardona,
`Morning Star - II -`, _Aeon_ IV. 2 (1995): 52f.

[482][122]D. A. MacKenzie, _South Seas_, 1930: 270

[483][123]A. Lang, _Myth, ritual and religion_, 1913: II: ad loc.

[484][124]Sir J. G. Frazer, _Myths of the origin of fire; an essay_,
London 1930: 19f., with reference to Rev. W. Ridley, `Report on
Australian languages and traditions', _Journal of the Anthropological
Institute_, II (1873) 278)

[485][125]Mudrooroo, _Aboriginal mythology; an A-Z spanning the
history of aboriginal mythology from the earliest legends to the
present day_, 1994: 103 ad `Mars'; compare R. Willis, _World
mythology_: 284

[486][126]Sir J. G. Frazer, _Myths of the origin of fire; an essay_,
London 1930: 207

[487][127]Sir J. G. Frazer, _Myths of the origin of fire; an essay_,
London 1930: 207

[488][128]Sir J. G. Frazer, _Myths of the origin of fire; an essay_,
London 1930: 16f.

[489][129]W. Burkert, _Greek religion_, 1985: 38

[490][130]S. H. Langdon, `Semitic': 39f.; in L. H. Gray (ed.), _The
mythology of all races_; the hymn cited by Langdon actually invokes
Iskur.

[491][131]M. Lurker, _Dictionary of gods and goddesses, devils and
demons_, London 1987: 18 ad `Almaqah'

[492][132]M. Lurker, _Dictionary of gods and goddesses, devils and
demons_, London 1987: 341 ad `Tesub'

[493][133]Chr. Blinkenberg, _The thunderweapon in religion and
folklore; a study in comparative archaeology_, 1911: 19

[494][134]M. Lurker, _Dictionary of gods and goddesses, devils and
demons_, London 1987: 99 ad `Dolichénus'

[495][135]Chr. Blinkenberg, _The thunderweapon in religion and
folklore; a study in comparative archaeology_, 1911: 21f. The
association of the lightning with the four directions is widespread
and is discussed by E. Cochrane in a separate article within this
issue.

[496][136]Chr. Blinkenberg, _The thunderweapon in religion and
folklore; a study in comparative archaeology_, 1911: 20 note 1

[497][137]Chr. Blinkenberg, _The thunderweapon in religion and
folklore; a study in comparative archaeology_, 1911: 22

[498][138]Chr. Blinkenberg, _The thunderweapon in religion and
folklore; a study in comparative archaeology_, 1911: 51

[499][139]Chr. Blinkenberg, _The thunderweapon in religion and
folklore; a study in comparative archaeology_, 1911: 10

[500][140]M. Green, _The Sun-Gods of Ancient Europe_, 1991: 45

[501][141]M. Green, _The Sun-Gods of Ancient Europe_, 1991: 92

[502][142]Sir B. Schonland, _The flight of thunderbolts_, Oxford,
19642: 3

[503][143]C. W. Ford, _The Hero with an African face; mythic wisdom of
traditional Africa_, 1999: 160, 163; Y. Bonnefoy, _Mythologies_, I-II,
Chicago, London, 1981: I 55f.

[504][144]F. Yearout (ed.), _Myths_, 1976: 104

[505][145]F. Yearout (ed.), _Myths_, 1976: 104

[506][146]R. Poignant, _Oceanic mythology: the myths of Polynesia,
Micronesia, Melanesia, Australia_, 1967: 122, 124

[507][147]W. Caruana, _Aboriginal art_, 1993: 39

[508][148]W. Burkert, _Greek religion_, 1985: 36

[509][149]Chr. Blinkenberg, _The thunderweapon in religion and
folklore; a study in comparative archaeology_, 1911: 21f.

[510][150]H. A. Tyler, _Pueblo gods and myths_, 1964: 127

[511][151]E. W. Voegelin, _Culture element distributions: XX:
Northeast California_, in series _Anthropological Records_, 7. 2,
1940: 237

[512][152]S. Thompson, _Motif-index of folk-literature; a
classification of narrative elements in folktales, ballads, myths,
fables, mediaeval romances, exempla, fabliaux, jest-books, and local
legends_, I-VI, 19662: I 121

[513][153]Schonfield derives the somewhat untransparent name from
Aramaic _Boane-ragsha_, `the stormy ones'. [H. J. Schonfield, _The
passover plot; new light on the history of Jesus_, London 1965: 83]

[514][154]Chr. Blinkenberg, _The thunderweapon in religion and
folklore; a study in comparative archaeology_, 1911: #51, #53, #56,
#57, #58, #59, #71

[515][155]Sir J. G. Frazer, _The magic art and the evolution of
kings_, I-II, London, 1951: I 265

[516][156]Sir J. G. Frazer, _The magic art and the evolution of
kings_, I-II, London, 1951: I 265f. note 1

[517][157]K. McLeish, _Myth; myths & legends of the world explored_,
London 1996: 605 ad `Thunder'

[518][158]B. Moon (ed.), _An encyclopaedia of archetypal symbolism;
the archive for research in archetypal symbolism_, 1991: 187

[519][159]H. B. Alexander, `North America': 165; in L. H. Gray (ed.),
_The mythology of all races_

[520][160]K. McLeish, _Myth; myths & legends of the world explored_,
London 1996: 178 ad `Enumclaw and Kapoonis'

[521][161]M. Leach (ed.), _Standard dictionary of folklore, mythology
and legend_, 1984: 621 ad `lightning'; compare E. W. Voegelin,
_Culture element distributions: XX: Northeast California_, in series
_Anthropological Records_, 7. 2, 1940: 237

[522][162]H. A. Tyler, _Pueblo gods and myths_, 1964: 101

[523][163]H. A. Tyler, _Pueblo gods and myths_, 1964: 216

[524][164]Chr. Blinkenberg, _The thunderweapon in religion and
folklore; a study in comparative archaeology_, 1911: 121 ad #133

[525][165]K. McLeish, _Myth; myths & legends of the world explored_,
London 1996: 111 ad `Catequil'

[526][166]H. Scheub, _A dictionary of African mythology_, 2000: 47 ad
`Epilipili Is Born of Lightning (Efe/DRCongo).

[527][167]U. Holmberg, `Finno-Ugric, Siberian': 227; in L. H. Gray
(ed.), _The mythology of all races_

[528][168]U. Holmberg, `Finno-Ugric, Siberian': 443; in L. H. Gray
(ed.), _The mythology of all races_

[529][169]Y. Bonnefoy, _Mythologies_, I-II, Chicago, London, 1981: II
1149

[530][170]R. Poignant, _Oceanic mythology: the myths of Polynesia,
Micronesia, Melanesia, Australia_, 1967: 122, 124; compare R. Carlyon,
_A guide to the gods_, 1981: 359 ad `Lightning Brothers'; G. Parrinder
(ed.), _Man and his gods; encyclopedia of the world's religions_,
1971: 53

[531][171]Burkert, _Greek religion_:  213

[532][172]D. A. MacKenzie, _South Seas_, 1930: 322; A. A. MacDonell,
_The Vedic mythology_, 1971: 57, with reference to Rig Veda VI. 59. 2

[533][173]D. A. MacKenzie, _South Seas_, 1930: 260, 290f.

[534][174]D. A. MacKenzie, _Pre-Columbian America_, 1923: 275

[535][175]Chr. Blinkenberg, _The thunderweapon in religion and
folklore; a study in comparative archaeology_, 1911: 1

[536][176]Blinkenberg, _The thunderweapon in religion and folklore; a
study in comparative archaeology_, 1911: 5f.

[537][177]G. Reichel-Dolmatoff, _The shaman and the jaguar; a study of
narcotic drugs among the Indians of Colombia_, 1975: 99, 102

[538][178]D. A. MacKenzie, _South Seas_, 1930: 171

[539][179]W. Caruana, _Aboriginal art_, 1993: 39

[540][180]D. Gillette, _The shaman's secret; the lost resurrection
teachings of the ancient Maya_, 1997: 65f.

[541][181]H. Frisk, _Griechisches etymologisches Wörterbuch_, I-II,
Heidelberg, 1960: I 828 ad 6gD"L<`H

[542][182]E. Radford & M. A. Radford, _Encyclopædia of superstitions_,
1949: 163 ad `lightning'

[543][183]D. Pickering, `Dictionary of superstitions', 1995: 157 ad
`lightning'

[544][184]Y. Bonnefoy, _Mythologies_, I-II, Chicago, London, 1981: I
534

[545][185]Chr. Blinkenberg, _The thunderweapon in religion and
folklore; a study in comparative archaeology_, 1911: 77 ad #45

[546][186]Chr. Blinkenberg, _The thunderweapon in religion and
folklore; a study in comparative archaeology_, 1911: 113 ad #119

[547][187]M. Eliade, _Patterns in comparative religion_, Ohio, 19706:
446

[548][188]Chr. Blinkenberg, _The thunderweapon in religion and
folklore; a study in comparative archaeology_, 1911: 107f. ad #115

[549][189]D. A. MacKenzie, _Myths of China and Japan_, 1994: 59; no
further references are given.

[550][190]compare F. Brown, S. R. Driver & Ch. A. Briggs, _A Hebrew
and English lexicon of the Old Testament_, Oxford, no year given: 140
ad `b~r"q"`

[551][191]H. Bächtold-Stäubli, _Handwörterbuch des deutschen
Aberglaubens_, I-, 1987: I 1422 ad `Blitzstein'

[552][192]L. Ginzberg, _The legends of the Jews_, I-VII, 1913: IV 335

[553][193]Leland, 250

[554][194]Chr. Blinkenberg, _The thunderweapon in religion and
folklore; a study in comparative archaeology_, 1911: 2

[555][195]Sir J. Frazer, _The golden bough; a study in magic and
religion_, abridged edition, London, 1963: 149

[556][196]H. Bächtold-Stäubli, _Handwörterbuch des deutschen
Aberglaubens_, I-, 1987: I 1401, ad `Blitz'

[557][197]J. A. MacCulloch, `Eddic': 79; in L. H. Gray (ed.), _The
mythology of all races_

[558][198]Chr. Blinkenberg, _The thunderweapon in religion and
folklore; a study in comparative archaeology_, 1911: 99

[559][199]Chr. Blinkenberg, _The thunderweapon in religion and
folklore; a study in comparative archaeology_, 1911: 101 ad #104

[560][200]A. A. MacDonell, _The Vedic mythology_, 1971: 78f.,
referring to Rig Veda VIII. 7. 25, V. 54. 3, 11

[561][201]J. Gonda, _Epithets in the RigVeda_, 1959: 60, cited in E.
Cochrane, `Indra's theft of the Sun-God's wheel', _Aeon_ III. 3
(1993): 77, 83; `Martian meteorites in ancient myth and modern
science', _Aeon_ IV. 2 (1995): 67

[562][202]J. S. Mbiti, _Concepts of God in Africa_, London 1970: 140f.

[563][203]A. S. Mercatante, _The facts on file encyclopedia of world
mythology and legend_, 1988: 486 ad `Nyame'

[564][204]T. Andrews, _Legends of the earth, sea and sky; an
encyclopedia of nature myths_, 1998: 61 ad `Deng'; compare M. Lurker,
_Dictionary of gods and goddesses, devils and demons_, London 1987: 92
ad `Deng'

[565][205]A. S. Mercatante, _The facts on file encyclopedia of world
mythology and legend_, 1988: 669 ad `Wambeen'

[566][206]A. S. Mercatante, _The facts on file encyclopedia of world
mythology and legend_, 1988: 386 ad `Kohin'

[567][207]R. Poignant, _Oceanic mythology: the myths of Polynesia,
Micronesia, Melanesia, Australia_, 1967: 124

[568][208]M. Lurker, _Dictionary of gods and goddesses, devils and
demons_, London 1987: 288 ad `Preas Eyn'

[569][209]Y. Bonnefoy, _Mythologies_, I-II, Chicago, London, 1981: II
1183

[570][210]D. Gillette, _The shaman's secret; the lost resurrection
teachings of the ancient Maya_, 1997: 65f.

[571][211]K. McLeish, _Myth; myths & legends of the world explored_,
London 1996: 111 ad `Catequil'

[572][212]H. B. Alexander, `Latin-American': 295; in L. H. Gray (ed.),
_The mythology of all races_

[573][213]D. A. MacKenzie, _Pre-Columbian America_, 1923: ad loc.

[574][214]D. Gillette, _The shaman's secret; the lost resurrection
teachings of the ancient Maya_, 1997: 65f.

[575][215]Sir J. Frazer, _The golden bough; a study in magic and
religion_, abridged edition, London, 1963: 708

[576][216]K. McLeish, _Myth; myths & legends of the world explored_,
London 1996: 610 ad `Tirawa'

[577][217]J. C. Andersen, _Myths and legends of the Polynesians_,
1969: 320

[578][218]J. C. Andersen, _Myths and legends of the Polynesians_,
1969: 157

[579][219]A. Werner, `African': 126, 239; in L. H. Gray (ed.), _The
mythology of all races_

[580][220]A. Werner, `African': 238; in L. H. Gray (ed.), _The
mythology of all races_

[581][221]J. S. Mbiti, _Concepts of God in Africa_, London 1970:
140f.; _African religions and philosophy_, 1969: 53f.; compare E. E.
Evans-Pritchard, `Some features of Nuer religion': 135; in J.
Middleton (ed.), _Gods and rituals; readings in religious beliefs and
practices_, New York, 1967

[582][222]J. S. Mbiti, _Concepts of God in Africa_, London 1970: 103,
122

[583][223]K. McLeish, _Myth; myths & legends of the world explored_,
London 1996: 550 ad `Shango'

[584][224]J. S. Mbiti, _African religions and philosophy_, 1969: 53f.

[585][225]M. Lurker, _Dictionary of gods and goddesses, devils and
demons_, London 1987: 252 ad `Ngai'

[586][226]J. Knappert, _The encyclopaedia of Middle Eastern mythology
and religion_, 1993: 78 ad `Barqiya'

[587][227]M. Lurker, _Dictionary of gods and goddesses, devils and
demons_, London 1987: 386 ad `Yima'

[588][228]Y. Bonnefoy, _Mythologies_, I-II, Chicago, London, 1981: I
318

[589][229]A. J. Carnoy, `Iranian': 285; in L. H. Gray (ed.), _The
mythology of all races_

[590][230]A. Berriedale Keith, `Indian': 36; in L. H. Gray (ed.), _The
mythology of all races_

[591][231]A. Berriedale Keith, `Indian': 43; in L. H. Gray (ed.), _The
mythology of all races_

[592][232]A. Berriedale Keith, `Indian': 135; in L. H. Gray (ed.),
_The mythology of all races_

[593][233]A. A. MacDonell, _The Vedic mythology_, 1971: 92f.

[594][234]R. Panikkar, _The Vedic experience; Mantramañjar__§__; an
anthology of the Vedas for modern man and contemporary celebration_,
1977: 525

[595][235]R. Panikkar, _The Vedic experience; Mantramañjar__§__; an
anthology of the Vedas for modern man and contemporary celebration_,
1977: 664

[596][236]S. Thompson, _Motif-index of folk-literature; a
classification of narrative elements in folktales, ballads, myths,
fables, mediaeval romances, exempla, fabliaux, jest-books, and local
legends_, I-VI, 19662: II 30

[597][237]Chr. Blinkenberg, _The thunderweapon in religion and
folklore; a study in comparative archaeology_, 1911: 14f.

[598][238]W. Burkert, _Greek religion_, 1985: 126

[599][239]R. E. Bell, _Dictionary of classical mythology_, 1982: 150
ad `lightning', with reference to Pausanias 5. 14. 8; Lycoph. 1370

[600][240]Sir J. Frazer, _The golden bough; a study in magic and
religion_, abridged edition, London, 1963: 709

[601][241]W. Sherwood Fox, `Greek and Roman' (1916): 159f.; in L. H.
Gray (ed.), _The mythology of all races_

[602][242]G. Jobes, _Dictionary of mythology, folklore and symbols_,
I-III, New York, 1961: II 993 ad `Lightning'

[603][243]J. A. MacCulloch, `Eddic': 81; in L. H. Gray (ed.), _The
mythology of all races_

[604][244]J. A. MacCulloch, `Eddic': 148; in L. H. Gray (ed.), _The
mythology of all races_

[605][245]A. A. MacDonell, _The Vedic mythology_, 1971: 70, with
reference to Rig Veda X. 20. 7, VI. 48. 5

[606][246]Chr. Blinkenberg, _The thunderweapon in religion and
folklore; a study in comparative archaeology_, 1911: 13, with
reference to Pausanias, III. 22, 1

[607][247]Chr. Blinkenberg, _The thunderweapon in religion and
folklore; a study in comparative archaeology_, 1911: 30

[608][248]R. E. Bell, _Dictionary of classical mythology_, 1982: 150
ad `lightning'

[609][249]G. R. Scott, _Phallic worship; a history of sex and sexual
rites_, 1966: 139

[610][250]G. R. Scott, _Phallic worship; a history of sex and sexual
rites_, 1966: 111

[611][251]D. A. MacKenzie, _South Seas_, 1930: 317, 320

[612][252]L. Ginzberg, _The legends of the Jews_, I-VII, 1913: III:
10, cited in D. Cardona, `The shrine of Baal-Zephon', _Aeon_ IV. 6
(1997): 94

[613][253]H. A. Tyler, _Pueblo gods and myths_, 1964: 183

[614][254]U. Holmberg, `Finno-Ugric, Siberian': 444; in L. H. Gray
(ed.), _The mythology of all races_

[615][255]A. Junker, _Die Onuris-Legende_: 57f.; cited in D. N.
Talbott, `On testing the polar configuration', _Aeon_ I. 2 (1988): 115

[616][256]E. Cochrane _Martian metamorphoses; the planet Mars in
ancient myth and religion_, 1997: 27 note 1

[617][257]D. A. MacKenzie, _Myths of China and Japan_, 1994: 47, 100

[618][258]D. A. MacKenzie, _South Seas_, 1930: 211; compare S.
Thompson, _Motif-index of folk-literature; a classification of
narrative elements in folktales, ballads, myths, fables, mediaeval
romances, exempla, fabliaux, jest-books, and local legends_, I-VI,
19662: I 95

[619][259]K. Endicott, _Batek Negrito religion; the world-view and
rituals of a hunting and gathering people of Peninsular Malaysia_,
1979: 164f.

[620][260]Father B. Cobo, _Inca religion and customs_, 1990: 32

[621][261]R. Barber, _A companion to world mythology_, 1979: 130 ad
`Ilyap'a, Illapa'; compare Å Hultkrantz, _The religions of the
American Indians_, 1967: 199

[622][262]Von del Chamberlain, _When stars came down to earth;
cosmology of the Skidi Pawnee Indians of North America_, 1982: 25 note
17

[623][263]A. A. MacDonell, _The Vedic mythology_, 1971: 70

[624][264]M. H. Ananikian, `Armenian': 46; in L. H. Gray (ed.), _The
mythology of all races_

[625][265]D. A. MacKenzie, _Pre-Columbian America_ (New Jersey) 1923:
12

[626][266]E. W. Voegelin, _Culture element distributions: XX:
Northeast California_, in series _Anthropological Records_, 7. 2,
1940: 237

[627][267]E. Cochrane, `The birth of Athena', _Aeon_ II. 3 (1990): 19,
no reference given

[628][268]H. Bächtold-Stäubli, _Handwörterbuch des deutschen
Aberglaubens_, I-, 1987: I 1417, ad `Blitz'

[629][269]L. Spence, _The myths of Babylonia and Assyria_, 1934: 69,
cited in D. Cardona, `Morning Star', _Aeon_ IV. 1 (1995): 7

[630][270]D. N. Talbott, _The Saturn myth; a reinterpretation of rites
and symbols illuminating some of the dark corners of primordial
society_, 1980: 87

[631][271]D. N. Talbott, _The Saturn myth; a reinterpretation of rites
and symbols illuminating some of the dark corners of primordial
society_, 1980: 252

[632][272]B. Alster, _Dumuzi's Dream_ (Copenhagen) 1972: 61, cited in
E. Cochrane, `Aphrodite Urania', _Aeon_ V. 2 (1998): 49f.

[633][273]I. Velikovsky, _Worlds in collision_, 1950: 164, 179

[634][274]T. Freke & P. Gandy, _The Jesus mysteries_, 2000: ad loc.

[635][275]W. Burkert, _Greek religion_, 1985: 97

[636][276]W. Burkert, _Greek religion_, 1985: 210

[637][277]W. Burkert, _Greek religion_, 1985: 261

[638][278]W. Burkert, _Greek religion_, 1985: 261

[639][279]W. Burkert, _Greek religion_, 1985: 165

[640][280]W. Burkert, _Greek religion_, 1985: 283

[641][281]M. Eliade, _Patterns in comparative religion_, 1958: 424

[642][282]M. Eliade, _Patterns in comparative religion_, 1958: 421f.

[643][283]D. N. Talbott, _The Saturn myth; a reinterpretation of rites
and symbols illuminating some of the dark corners of primordial
society_, 1980: 88

[644][284]M. Eliade, _Patterns in comparative religion_, 1958: 422

[645][285]M. Eliade, _Patterns in comparative religion_, 1958: 423

[646][286]J. Leclant: `Asurté à Cheval, d'après les Représentations
Egyptiennes', _Syrie_, 37 (1960): 7, cited in Z. Rix, `The androgenous
(sic!) comet', _SIS Review_, I. 5 (1977): 17-19

[647][287]_ibidem_.

[648][288]U. Oldenburg, `Above the stars of El: El in ancient South
Arabic religion', _Zeitschrift für alttestamentliche Wissenschaft_, 82
(1970): 199f., cited in E. Cochrane, `Mars Gods of the New World',
_Aeon_ IV. 1 (1995): 60

[649][289]A. de Grazia & P. James, `Aphrodite - The Moon or Venus',
_SIS Review_ I. 3 (1976): 8-14

[650][290]W. Burkert, _Greek religion_, 1985: 220

[651][291]A. B. Cook, _Zeus_, 1965: 1026; E. G. Suhr, _Before
Olympus_, 1967: 121, cited in D. Cardona, `The evolution of the
cosmogonic egg', _Aeon_ III. 5 (1994): 62

[652][292]K. Preisendanz, _Papyri Graecae Magicae; Die Griechischen
Zauberpapyri_, 1928, I: 64, cited in D. Cardona, `Child of Saturn
(part III)', _Kronos_ VII. 3 (1982): 3-14

[653][293]M. Eliade, _Patterns in comparative religion_, 1958: 421

[654][294]M. Eliade, _Patterns in comparative religion_, 1958: 423

[655][295]H. de Wilman-Grabovnska, `Brahmanic mythology', _Asiatic
Mythology_, 1972: 124f., cited in D. Cardona, `Child of Saturn (part
III)', _Kronos_ VII. 3 (1982): 3-14

[656][296]M. Eliade, _Patterns in comparative religion_, 1958: 421

[657][297]M. Eliade, _Patterns in comparative religion_, 1958: 421

[658][298]M. Eliade, _Patterns in comparative religion_, 1958: 422f.

[659][299]M. Eliade, _Patterns in comparative religion_, 1958: 422

[660][300]M. Eliade, _Patterns in comparative religion_, 1958: 422

[661][301]M. Eliade, _Patterns in comparative religion_, 1958: 423

[662][302]D. N. Talbott, _The Saturn myth; a reinterpretation of rites
and symbols illuminating some of the dark corners of primordial
society_, 1980: 88

[663][303]D. Adams Leeming, _Mythology; the voyage of the hero_, New
York-Oxford, 19983: 257

[664][304]An example of the woman dressing as a man is the following:
Athena _entices Hector to his death by appearing to him as his
brother, ..._ [W. Burkert, _Greek religion_, 1985: 141]

[665][305]Sir J. Frazer, _Folklore in the Old Testament; studies in
comparative religion, legend and law_, abr., 1975: 125

[666][306]Practically all material presented in this paragraph is
collected in E. Cochrane, _Martian metamorphoses; the planet Mars in
ancient myth and religion_, 1997: 8, 27f., 140, 154, 174ff. V. Wilson,
`The iconography of Bes with particular reference to the Cypriot
evidence', _Levant_, 7 (1975): 78

[667][307]B. Brundage, `Heracles the Levantine', _Journal of
Near-Eastern Studies_, 17:4 (1958): 209ff.

[668][308]W. Burkert, _Structure and history in Greek mythology and
ritual_, 1982: 80

[669][309]D. A. MacKenzie, _South Seas_, 1930: 331

[670][310]V. Wilson, `The iconography of Bes with particular reference
to the Cypriot evidence', _Levant_, 7 (1975): 78; F. Brommer,
_Heracles: the twelve labors of the Hero in ancient art and
literature_, 1986: ad loc.

[671][311]J. Bremmer, `Scapegoat rituals in ancient Greece', _HSCP_,
87 (1983): ad loc.

[672][312]J. Nagy, _The wisdom of the outlaw: the boyhood deeds of
Finn in Gaelic narrative tradition_, 1985: 199

[673][313]I. Velikovsky, _Worlds in collision_, 1950: 261; P. Gossman,
_Planetarium Babylonicum_, 1950: 65

[674][314]D. A. MacKenzie, _Pre-Columbian America_ (New Jersey) 1923:
246

[675][315]M. P. Nilsson, _Greek folk religion_, 1972: 10; D.
Gershenson, _Apollo the wolf-god_, 1991: 1-23; L. Farnell, _The cults
of the Greek states_, 1977, II: 114-117, 202

[676][316]M. Eliade, _Patterns in comparative religion_ (1958): 78

[677][317]B. Brundage, _The fifth sun: Aztec gods, Aztec world_, 1979:
83

[678][318]B. Stross, `Venus and Sirius: some unexpected similarities',
_Kronos_ XII. 1 (1987): 25-42

[679][319]J. Thompson, _Maya hieroglyphic writing_, 1971: 79, cited in
D. N. Talbott & E. Cochrane, `When Venus was a comet', _Kronos_ XII. 1
(1987): 2-24

[680][320]A. Lang, _Myth, ritual and religion_, 1913: I: ad loc.

[681][321]D. A. MacKenzie, _Pre-Columbian America_, 1923: 247

[682][322]D. A. MacKenzie, _Pre-Columbian America_, 1923: 247

[683][323]Sir J. G. Frazer, _Myths of the origin of fire; an essay_,
London 1930: 208

[684][324]K. McLeish, _Myth; myths & legends of the world explored_,
London 1996: 605 ad `Thunder'; compare H. R. Hays, _In the beginnings;
early man and his gods_, New York, 1963: 358

[685][325]Sir J. G. Frazer, _Myths of the origin of fire; an essay_,
London 1930: 209

[686][326]Sir J. G. Frazer, _Myths of the origin of fire; an essay_,
London 1930: 211

[687][327]T. Andrews, _Legends of the earth, sea and sky; an
encyclopedia of nature myths_, 1998: 5 ad `Africa'

[688][328]Sir J. G. Frazer, _Myths of the origin of fire; an essay_,
London 1930: 210

[689][329]D. Pickering, `Dictionary of superstitions', 1995: 157 ad
`lightning'; N. N. Puckett, _Folk beliefs of the Southern Negro_, New
York, 1969: 48; M. Leach (ed.), _Standard dictionary of folklore,
mythology and legend_, 1984: 621 ad `lightning'

[690][330]Chr. Blinkenberg, _The thunderweapon in religion and
folklore; a study in comparative archaeology_, 1911: 113 ad #119

[691][331]D. A. MacKenzie, _Pre-Columbian America_ (New Jersey) 1923:
246

[692][332]D. A. MacKenzie, _Pre-Columbian America_ (New Jersey) 1923:
246; compare Velikovsky's report that the Chinese know of planets
emitting animal sounds when they reach the earth, _Worlds in
collision_, 1950: 265

[693][333]D. A. MacKenzie, _Pre-Columbian America_ (New Jersey) 1923:
246

[694][334]E. Schafer, _Pacing the void_ (Berkeley) 1977: 215, cited in
E. Cochrane, _Martian metamorphoses; the planet Mars in ancient myth
and religion_ (Ames) 1997: 25, 74; D. A. MacKenzie, _Myths of China
and Japan_, 1994: 274

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[701][341]D. A. MacKenzie, _Myths of China and Japan_, 1994: 236

[702][342]D. A. MacKenzie, _Pre-Columbian America_, 1923: ad loc.

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[704][344]D. A. MacKenzie, _Pre-Columbian America_, 1923: ad loc.

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[706][346]D. A. MacKenzie, _Pre-Columbian America_ (New Jersey) 1923:
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[707][347]Sir J. G. Frazer, _Myths of the origin of fire; an essay_,
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[708][348]G. Reichel-Dolmatoff, _Amazonian Cosmos; the sexual and
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[709][349]G. Urton, _Animal myths and metaphors in South America_,
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[710][350]R. Barber, _A companion to world mythology_, 1979: 51 ad
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[712][352]H. Scheub, _A dictionary of African mythology_, 2000: 176 ad
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[713][353]A. Werner, `African': 144; in L. H. Gray (ed.), _The
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[715][355]H. Bächtold-Stäubli, _Handwörterbuch des deutschen
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[716][356]D. A. MacKenzie, _Pre-Columbian America_ (New Jersey) 1923:
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[717][357]M. H. Ananikian, `Armenian': 46; in L. H. Gray (ed.), _The
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